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Crapauy  A,  Fifth  Rejrimeiit  of  iEfaitrr, 
Second  Brigade.  M.  V.  M 


Elements  of  Hippology 


BY 

CAPTAIN  P.  C.  MARSHALL, 

Fifteenth  Cavalry. 


Prepared  for  the  Department  of  Tactics, 
United  States  Military  Academy. 


Second  and  Revised  Edition. 


1908 


Copyright,  1908,  by 

Franklin  Hudson  Publishing  Co.. 

Kansas  City,  Mo. 


PREFACE. 


It  isAdue  to  the^late^ General  Sir  Frederick  Fitzwygram  to 
give  credit  to  his  book;  "Horses  and  Stables/'  for  very  much 
that  is  contained  in  this  work,  and  the  author  wishes  to  thank 
his  widow  and  her  son,  the  present  Sir  Frederick  Fitzwygram, 
for  their  kind  permission  to  quote  from  it. 

" Horses  and  Stables7'  has  been  the  hand-book  and  guide 
of  the  American  cavalry  officer  since  the  issuance  of  its  first 
edition,  and  it  is  deeply  regreted  by  us  all  that  the  fifth  edition 
is  to  be  the  last  to  be  revised  by  its  talented  author. 

,  In  the  preparation  of  these  notes  the  works  of  Dr.  James 
Law,  General  Carter,  Captain  Hayes,  James  Fillis,  Gouboux 
and  Barrier,  and  Captain  Seton,  and  the  admirable  work  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  on  the  "Diseases  of  the  Horse," 
which  have  been  the  author's  guide  duringiiis  service  as  a  cav- 
alry officer,  have  also  been  freely  consulted.  Whatever  ideas 
he  has  developed  in  his  experience  flow  from  suggestions  re- 
ceived from  these  and  similar  works.  Nothing  new  is  claimed  or 
attempted.  The  effort  has  been„made  to  write  a  comprehen- 
sive book  that  will  cover,  in  outline  only,  all  general  subjects 
that  a  horseman  should  know. 

All  of  the  anatomical  illustrations  are  taken  from  "Dis- 
eases of  the  Horse,"  a  public  document  issued  by  the  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry,  Department  of  Agriculture.  The  pho- 
tographs for  the  rest  of  the  illustrations,  except  as  noted,  were 
taken  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Stockbridge,  under  the  author's  supervision, 
from  horses  and  polo  ponies  at  the  Military  Academy,  and  rep- 
resent ordinary  conditions  only.  No  effort  is  made  to  discuss 
the  so-called  "horse  of  luxury,"  which  is,  after  all,  only  an  ex- 
ceptionally good  specimen  of  the  type  that  ought  to  be  adhered 
to  in  purchasing  a  horse  for  any  special  purpose. 

Special  thanks  is  due  the  editor  of  "The  Rider  and  Driver," 
Mr.  Samuel  Walter  Taylor,  for  his  kindness  in  loaning  photo- 
graphs, and  for  the  cover  design. 

United  States  Military  Academy, 
West  Point,  New  York, 
January  1,  «908. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Chaptke.  Page. 

I. — General  Discussion,  .....       1 

II. — Age,  as  Determined  by  the  Teeth,  .  .         21 

III. — Inflammation,  .  .  .  .  .  .41 

IV.— The  Head  and  Neck, 48 

V. — Bits:     Their  Action,  Influence,  and  Proper  Use,     60 

VI.— The  Front  Leg, 81 

VII.— The  Position  of  the  Saddle,  ...         97 

VIIL— The  Trunk, 106 

IX.— The  Hind  Leg,    .  .         .         ..  .         .111 

X.— The  Horse's  Foot,  .  .   '      .  .         .122 

XL— Diseases  of  the  Foot, 129 

XII. — -The  Principles  of  Horseshoeing  for  Horses  with 

Ordinary  Feet,       .  .  .  .  .141 

XIII. — The  Heart,  Lungs,  and  Air  Passages,       .  .    155 

XIV. — The  Digestive  Apparatus,     .  .  .  .164 

XV. — Stable  Management, 171 

XVI. — Endurance  of  Horses. — Vices. — Punishment,   .       181 
XVIL— The  Care  of  Sick  Horses,  .  .         .  .196 

XVIIL— Preventable  Diseases, 201 

XIX. — Irregularities  of  Action,            ....   206 
XX.— Judging  Horses  and  the  Examination  for  Sound- 
ness,    .  .       ^ 212 


CHAPTER   I. 


A  GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 

It  is  useless  to  attempt  the  description  in  a  few  words  of  the 
origin  and  development  of  the  modern  horse;*  we  know  that  as 
far  back  as  authentic  history  reaches,  horses  have  been  used  by 
men  for  the  manifold  purposes  of  peace  and  war,  toil  and  recrea- 
tion. For  many  centuries  past  two  general  types  of  horses  have 
been  preserved.  One,  which  may  be  called  the  thoroughbred 
type, is  a  light,  active,  speedy  animal,  possessing  great  endurance. 
It  finds  its  best  uses  for  saddle  and  racing  purposes.  The  other 
type  is  more  powerful,  but  not  so.  active,  nor  as  fast.  This 
type  may  be  called,  in  general  terms,  the  Flanders  type.  It  is 
used  for  draft  purposes.  By  crossing  these  two  types  the  many 
special  breeds  and  families  of  horses  now  in  use  arise. 

A  thoroughbred  animal  is,  in  the  broadest  meaning  of  the 
term,  one  of  pure  blood,  descended  for  many  generations  from 
animals  of  the  same  sort.  Thus,  one  may  speak  with  perfect 
propriety  of  a  thoroughbred  fox-terrier  dog,  or  of  a  thorough- 
bred Jersey  cow,  or  of  a  thoroughbred  Cotswold  sheep.  A  thor- 
oughbred horse,  however,  is  a  race-horse — not  necessarily  used 
for  racing  purposes — descended  through  a  line  of  racers,  from 
Arab  stock.  Any  other  sort  of  a  horse  that  is  of  pure  strain,  de- 
scended from  known  ancestors  of  the  same  strain,  should  not  be 
called  thoroughbred,  but  pure- bred. 

*Those  who  are  interested  in  this  subject  will  find  "The  Origin 
and  Influence  of  the  Thoroughbred  Horse/'  by  William  Ridgewav 
(Cambridge,  University  Press),  interesting  and  exhaustive. 

l 
—2— 


2  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

A  stud-book  is  a  book  that  is  kept  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
cording the  pedigree  and  performances  of  thoroughbred  animals. 
The  stud-book  for  the  American  thoroughbred  horse  is  kept  by 
the  editor  of  the  American  Stud-Book,  in  New  York  City.  To 
entitle  a  horse  to  be  registered  as  a  thoroughbred  in  this  stud- 
book,  his  ancestors,  for  at  least  six  generations  of  sires  and  five 
of  dams,  must  have  been  so  registered. 

If,  in  examining  the  pedigree  of  a  thoroughbred  horse,  an 
ancestor  not  of  pure  Arabian  blood  is  found,  the  horse  is  said  to 
have  cold  blood. 

A  well-bred  horse  is  one  descended  from  a  line  of  selected 
sires  and  dams,  chosen  for  the  qualities  they  are  known  to  im- 
part to  their  offspring,  and  whose  rearing  has  been  carefully 
attended  to. 

The  horse  shown  in  Figure  1*  is  an  example  of  what  cen- 
turies of  intelligent  breeding  and  the  most  scientific  care  can 
accomplish. 

An  ill-bred  or  under- bred  horse  is  one  carelessly  bred, 
whose  sires  and  dams  have  not  been  well  chosen,  and  who,  for 
generations,  have  been  neglected  in  their  rearing. 

Figure  2  shows  an  under-bred  polo  pony  of  poor  quality. 
This  is  a  coarse  animal,  with  abundant  mane  and  tail.  While 
it  is  a  perfectly  sound,  serviceable  animal  for  slow,  light  work, 
its  sluggish  nature,  the  result  of  careless  breeding  and  rearing, 
unfits  it  for  anything  that  demands  courage  or  stamina  or  spirit. 

The  varied  uses  to  which  horses  are  put  has  led  breeders  to 
develop  special  strains  of  horses  that  will  best  accomplish  the 
special  work  demanded  of  them. 

*This  colt  was  bred  by  Mr.  I.  Simons  Harrison  at  his  stud-farm 
in  East  Yorkshire,  England,  and  it  is  due  to  his  courtesy  that  the 
photograph  is  introduced  here. 

Mr.  Harrison  says  of  him:  "This  colt  is  very  handsome  and 
racing-like  and  on  good  lines.  I  hope  he  may,  with  luck,  make  a  name 
for  himself  on  the  turf." 


Figure  3. — The  Coach-Horse  Type. 

Courtesy  of  J.  Campbell  Thompson,  Es-q. 


Figure  4. — The  Hackney. 
Courtesy  of  "The  Rider  and  Driver. 


ELEMENTS    OF   HIPPOLoGY.  5 

For  heavy  draft  purposes,  the  French  Percheron  and  Eng- 
lish Clydesdale  are  the  most  distinctive  types.  The  former  are 
usually  of  gray  color  and  the  latter  bay  or  brown.  These  are  the 
familiar  heavy  dray-horses;  they  weigh  from  1,200  to  2,000 
pounds,  and  are  the  most  popular  heavy  work-horses  in  the 
United  States. 

The  English  Shire  horse  is  very  similar  to  the  Clydesdale, 
and  the  French  draft  and  Norman  horses  to  the  Percheron. 
The  Belgian  and  Flemish  draft-horses  are  more  ponderous 
than  either  of  the  above  breeds,  and  for  that  reason,  probably, 
have  not  caught  the  American  horse-users'  fancy. 

The  coach-horses  are  bred  for  moderate  speed,  while 
drawing  fairly  heavy  loads.  They  are  over  sixteen  hands  high, 
and  weigh  from  1,100  to  1,300  pounds.  The  best-known  breeds 
are  the  English  coach,  the  French  coach,  and  the  Cleveland 
bay.  The  last  named  is  a  breed  developed  in  the  United  States. 
These  horses  are  not  pure-bred,  but  are  carefully  bred  from 
selected  individuals. 

The  hackney  is  a  breed  of  driving-horses  of  English  origin 
very  popular  in  the  United  States.  They  are  stocky,  strong, 
active  horses,  full  of  courage  and  good  temper,  smaller  than  the 
coach-horses,  and  much  less  rangy  in  build.  Fashion  demands  of 
them  an  exaggerated  knee  action  when  in  motion  and  a  peculiar 
stretched-out  pose  when  at  rest. 

The  hunter  is  a  saddle-horse  of  good  size,  with  a  strong 
thoroughbred  cross,  good  at  jumping,  and  with  excellent  wind. 
There  is  no  particular  breed  of  hunters.  They  are  simply  se- 
lected individuals  that  have  proven  to  be  useful  in  cross-country 
galloping.     It  is  performance  that  makes  a  hunter. 

The  polo  pony  is  another  type  of  saddle-horse  that  depends 
absolutely  on  his  individual  performances  to  make  him  of  any 
value  in  his  class.  Excellent  polo  ponies  are  bred  from  small 
mares  of  the  mustang  type  by  Arabian  or  Spanish  barb  sires. 


Figure  5. —  A  Hunter. 
Courtesy  of  "The  Rider  and  Driver. 


Figure  6. — A  Polo-Pony. 
Courtesy  of  M.  W.  Smith,  Esq. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  7 

In  the  United  States  there  have  been  developed  three  strains 
of  horses  that  are  worthy  of  special  notice  on  account  of  the  in- 
fluence each  has  had  on  the  quality  of  the  horses  of  the  nation. 
These  strains  are  the  American  standard  trotter,  the  Amer- 
ican or  Kentucky  saddle-horse,  and  the  Morgan  horse. 

The  trotter  is  the  result  of  an  effort  to  produce  the  best  an- 
imal for  racing  under  harness.  The  first  horse  to  trot  a  mile  in 
harness  in  less  than  three  minutes  was  Yankee,  who  performed 
that  feat  at  Harlem,  N.  Y.,  in  1806.  It  took  a  hundred  years  of 
the  most  careful  breeding  to  pass  the  two-minute  mark,  and 
breeders  are  still  trying  to  reduce  the  present  record  of  1:58J, 
made  by  Lou  Dillon  in  1903. 

The  influence  of  remarkable  individuals  is  singularly  shown 
in  the  breeding  of  American  trotters  of  record.  In  1884  there 
were  in  the  neighborhood  of  6,000  horses  in  the  United  States 
that  had  trotted  in  races  that  were  of  enough  moment  to  be  re- 
corded. "Of  these,  a  little  over  1,700  are  Hambletonians;  there 
are  657  other  Messengers,  making  a  total  of  2,369  that  trace  in 
male  line  to  Messenger.  There  are  762  Black  Hawks,  and  453 
other  Morgans,  or  a  total  of  1,215  that  trace  in  male  line  to  Justin 
Morgan.  There  are  about  700  that  trace  in  male  line  to  Canadian 
sires,  and  the  same  number  of  Bashaws,  with  something  over  300 
which  trace  to  thoroughbred  sires  other  than  those  mentioned, 
and  about  1,000  whose  tracing  is  not  certain."* 

In  other  words,  in  1884,  seven  of  every  twelve  trotting 
horses  of  record  traced  back  directly  to  Messenger  or  Justin 
Morgan,  and  the  same  proportion  is  probably  still  true.  The 
greatest  of  Messenger's  descendants  was  Rysdyk's  Hamble- 
tonian.     He  was  not  a  thoroughbred. 

The  standard  American  trotter  is  a  horse  that  has  been 
bred  for  racing  under  harness.  It  is  of  comparatively  recent 
date  that  any  care  has  been  taken  in  registering  these  horses. 

*From  an  article  in  "  Spirit  of  the  Times,"  February  14,  1885. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


Figure  7. 


-Lord  Clinton,  Standard  Morgan  Trotter. 
Courtesy  of  J.  Campbell  Thompson,  Esq. 


Any  horse  that  was  speedy,  or  whose  sire  or  dam  was  a  fast 
trotter,  or  pacer  even,  was  admitted  to  registry  in  the  stud-book 
of  the  National  Trotting  Horse  Breeders'  Association.  This  has 
resulted  in  the  greatest  confusion  in  tracing  pedigrees,  and  for 
several  years  has  not  been  permitted. 

The  term  " standard-bred"  is  now  applied  to  trotting  horses 
only  that  are  bred  to  a  certain  standard  of  speed.  The  term  does 
not  refer  to  the  blood  of  the  horse,  but  to  the  excellence  of  the 
trotting  performances  of  his  sire  and  dam.     The  rules  of  the 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPO  LOGY.  9 

American  Trotting  Register  Association,  in  whose  records  the 
pedigrees  of  standard-bred  horses  are  kept,  set  the  following  as 
the  trotting  standard: 

"  When  an  animal  meets  these  requirements  and  is  duly  regis- 
tered, it  shall  be  accepted  as  a  standard-bred  trotter: 

"1.  The  progeny  of  a  registered  standard  trotting  horse  and  a 
registered  standard  trotting  mare. 

"  2.  A  stallion  sired  by  a  registered  standard  trotting  horse, 
provided  his  dam  and  grandam  were  sired  by  registered  standard  trot- 
ting horses,  and  he  himself  has  a  trotting  record  of  2 :30  and  is  the  sire 
of  three  trotters  with  records  of  2:30,  from  different  mares. 

"  3.  A  mare  whose  sire  is  a  registered  standard  trotting  horse, 
and  whose  dam  and  grandam  were  sired  by  registered  standard  trot- 
ting horses,  provided  she  herself  has  a  trotting  record  of  2:30,  or  is  the 
dam  of  one  trotter  with  a  record  of  2:30. 

"  4.  A  mare  sired  by  a  registered  standard  trotting  horse,  pro- 
vided she  is  the  dam  of  two  trotters  with  records  of  2:30. 

"5.  A  mare  sired  by  a  registered  standard  trotting  horse,  pro- 
vided her  first,  second,  and  third  dams  are  each  sired  by  a  registered 
standard  trotting  horse." 

The  effect  of  this  search  for  speed  for  racing  purposes  under 
harness  has  been  to  give  to  the  United  States  a  fine  breed  of 
light  harness-horses.  The  standard  trotter  is  not  a  saddle-horse; 
he  is  too  rangy  to  be  a  strong  weight-carrier,  and  too  long  in  his 
stride  to  be  a  comfortable  mount. 


AMERICAN  SADDLE-HORSE  REGISTER.* 

RULES   FOR   ENTRY. 
In  Effect  August,  1904. 

Rule  1.  A  stallion  whose  sire  and  dam  are  both  registered  in 
Saddle  Horse  Register  is  eligible. 

Rule  2.  A  mare  whose  sire  or  dam  is  registered  and  who 
traces  on  other  side  to  registered  or  foundation  saddle  stock  is  eligible. 

Rule  3.  A  gelding  tracing  on  either  side  to  registered  or  foun- 
dation saddle  stock  is  eligible. 

Certificate  of  Owner  or  Manager  of  sire  that  mare  was  bred  must 
accompany  all  applications  for  foals  of  1907  and  after. 

*  This  is  the  form  used  to  register  American  saddle-horses  and  contains  the 
rules  governing  their  entry.  For  a  thoroughbred  registry,  the  sixth  dam  must  be 
registered  to  entitle  the  colt  to  be  called  a  "  thoroughbred." 


10  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

FEES   FOR   ENTRIES,  ETC. 
In  Effect  from  August  12,  1904. 

The  fee  for  entry  for  each  animal  shall  be  $1.00  to  members  of 
this  Association  and  $2.00  to  non-members;  but  if  not  registered  by  or 
before  December  31st  next  after  being  foaled,  the  fee  is  $5.00  to  mem- 
bers and  $10.00  to  non-members,  for  stallions  and  mares. 

For  geldings,  any  age,  the  fee  is  $1.00  to  members  and  $2.00  to 
non-members.     Fee  must  accompany  application. 

Fee  for  transfers  and  duplicate  certificates,  50c  each. 

Six  volumes  of  Register  have  been  issued  and  they  are  sold  at 
$2.00  per  volume. 

FALSE  OR   FRAUDULENT  ENTRIES. 

If  any  member  of  this  Association  knowingly  makes  a  false  or 
fraudulent  statement  in  order  to  enter  an  animal  in  the  Register,  he 
will  be  expelled  from  the  Association  and  his  entry  expunged. 

If  anyone  not  a  member  knowingly  makes  a  false  or  fraudulent 
statement  in  order  to  enter  an  animal,  his  entry  will  be  expunged  and 
he  will  be  debarred  from  making  entries  in  the  future. 

FOUNDATION   STOCK. 

The  following  stallions  are  registered  as  foundation  stock,  and 
will  be  recognized  as  saddle  strains  under  the  rules  above: 
Denmark  (thoroughbred),  by  Imp.  Hedgeford. 
John  Dillard,  by  Indian  Chief  (Canadian). 
Tom  Hal,  Imp.  from  Canada. 
Coleman's  Eureka  (thoroughbred — Morgan). 
Vanmeter's  Waxy  (thoroughbred). 
Cabell's  Lexington,  by  Gist's  Black  Hawk  (Morgan). 
Stump  the  Dealer  (thoroughbred). 
Peter's  Halcorn. 
Davy  Crockett. 

Pat  Cleburne,  by  Benton's  Gray  Diomed. 
Say  whether  stallion,  mare,  or  gelding. 

Give  the  name  and  address  of  the  breeder  of  entry,  and  of  the 
sire  and  dam  if  known. 

If  you  think  name  you  select  may  be  taken,  give  second  choice 
for  name. 

Write  Saddle-Horse  Register  numbers  straight.  Put  trotting 
numbers  in  parentheses. 

If  there  are  no  "  distinguishing  marks,"  write  "  None"  in  space. 
Address,  I.  B.  NALL,  Secretary, 

Louisville,  Ky. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


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ELEMENTS    OE    HIPPOLOGY.  13 

For  a  number  of  centuries  in  England,  whence  the  larger 
proportion  of  our  imported  saddle-horses  have  come,  saddle- 
horses  have  been  trained  to  three  gaits  only— the  walk,  trot,  and 
gallop.  In  the  early  years  of  the  history  of  Kentucky,  although 
the  country  was  prosperous  and  its  people  rich,  the  roads  were 
poor.  The  business  of  the  State  was  done  on  horseback,  and  the 
demand  arose  for  a  comfortable  saddle-horse.  To  meet  this  de- 
mand a  breed  of  horses,  now  known  as  the  American  saddle- 
horse,  was  developed.  The  Canadian  pacer,  a  horse  descended 
from  French  and  English  stock,  was  crossed  with  the  thorough- 
bred, and,  by  careful  breeding,  the  present  splendid  breed  of 
saddle-horses  has  resulted. 

They  are  medium-sized,  well-built  animals,  of  good  color; 
kind,  docile,  and  willing.  They  jump  well  and  gallop  easily  and 
make  ideal  mounts  for  cavalry,  but  their  chief  distinction  is  the 
possession  of  a  number  of  artificial  gaits  that  add  greatly  to  the 
comfort  of- their  riders. 

These  horses  can  be  used  as  light  driving-horses  without 
injury  to  their  gaits.* 

The  term  "  breed,"  as  used  by  the  farmer,  signifies  a  group 
or  class  of  animals  having 'a  number  of  distinctive  qualities  and 
characteristics  in  common,  and  the  power  to  transmit  those 
distinctive  traits  with  a  good  degree  of  certainty. 

"A  breed  is  usually  started  by  selecting  two  or  more  unusu- 
ally good  animals  from  a  group  that  has  been  produced  in  a  lo- 
cality by  reason  of  better  food,  environment,  and  intelligent  se- 
lection, and  which  is  usually  superior  to  the  animals  of  the  same 
species  in  other  localities.  These  few  having  JUeen  selected,  in- 
breeding is  practiced  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  for  the  purpose 
of  perpetuating  and  intensifying  one  or  more  desired  character- 
istics. At  first  the  work  is  usually  carried  on  by  one,  or  at  most 
a  few,  of  the  most  intelligent  breeders,  who,  by  improving  condi- 
tions, have  first  improved  the  quality  of  their  own  stock. 

*The  description  of  these  gaits  will  be  found  in  Chapter  XIX. 


14  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

"It  will  be  readily  seen  that  when  the  attempt  is  made  to 
launch  a  breed  and  establish  a  record  of  genealogy,  or  pedigree, 
for  the  various  animals  selected  for  such  record,  the  first  pedi- 
grees must  be  based  on  unpublished  records.  Not  infrequently 
some  of  the  foundation  stock  is  recorded  simply  by  name,  and 
nothing  is  said  of  ancestors,  because  nothing  is  known  of  them."* 

From  the  above  definition,  the  term  "breed"  can  hardly  be 
applied  to  the  trotter,  because  the  search  has  been  more  for 
speedy  individuals  than  for  a  class  of  horses  possessing  special 
qualities.  Until  recently,  pedigrees  have  been  very  loosely  kept. 
The  Kentucky  saddle-horse,  although  his  breeding  has  been  con- 
temporary with  that  of  the  trotter,  forms  now  a  distinct  breed, 
whose  individuals  possess  the  power  of  transmitting  their  dis- 
tinctive traits  with  reasonable  certainty. 

The  Morgan  family  of  horses  is,  in  this  sense,  not  a  breed. 
It  includes  the  descendants  of  Justin  Morgan,  a  horse  foaled  in 
1789,  three-quarters  thoroughbred,  and  of  such  remarkable  vir- 
ility that  his  descendants  to  this  day  still  bear  unmistakably 
many  of  the  qualities  that  made  their  great  progenitor  famous. 

The  rules  of  admission  to  the  Morgan  Horse  and  Register 
are'  these: 

"1.  Any  meritorious  stallion,  mare,  or  gelding  that  traces  in 
direct  line  to  Justin  Morgan  and  has  at  least  one-sixty -fourth  of  his 
blood;  provided  the  sire  and  dam  were  bred  in  approved  speed  or 
roadster  lines. 

"  2.  Any  meritorious  stallion,  mare,  or  gelding  having  one- 
thirty-second  or  more  of  the  blood  of  Justin  Morgan;  provided  the 
sire  and  dam  were  bred  in  approved  speed  or  roadster  lines. 

"3.  The  produce  of  a  sire  and  dam  both  registered  in  the 
Mcrgan  Registry." 

As  a  business-horse — a  horse  of  all  work — the  Morgan  horse 

stands  preeminent.     No  other" stallion  in  the  history  of  Western 

horses  possessed  the  power  of  perpetuating  good  qualities  to  the 

the  extent  possessed   by  Justin    Morgan.     The    distinguishing 

*From  Chapter  IV.,  "The  Horse,"  Roberts  (The  Macmillan  Compa- 
ny), a  most  excellent  and  practical  book,  treating  of  the  horse  in  his 
every -day  aspect. 


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16  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

characteristics  of  his  family  are:  beauty  and  symmetry  of 
conformation,  hardiness,  longevity,  docility,  willingness,  and 
endurance. 

The  light  harness-horse  and  the  lighter  sort  of  work-horses 
in  the  United  States  are,  in  the  main,  mongrels.  They  are  so 
badly  bred,  so  crossed  with  conflicting  strains,  that  little  can  be 
predicted  of  the  quality  of  the  average  foal,  based  on  the  qualities 
of  its  sire  and  dam.* 

The  Arab  horse  is  the  aristocrat  of  the  horse  world.  These 
wonderful  animals  have  been  kept  of  pure  blood  for  "a  known 
period  of  3,500  years"!  in  the  deserts  of  Arabia.  They  have 
furnished  the  uplifting,  ennobling  quality  which  has  been  intro- 
duced in  the' blood  of  commoner  horses  from  a  period  dating 
back  from  1600  to  2000  B.  C. 

Their  influence  is  met  with  in  the  mustang  of  the  Western 
plains  and  in  the  small  Philippine  pony,  both  degenerate  Arabs, 
descending  through  the  Spanish  barb.  Both  are  wiry,  plucky 
little  animals,  showing  little '  of  the  graceful  conformation  of 
their  great  ancestors,  but  much  of  their  courage  and  endurance. 

GENERAL  DEFINITIONS. 

The  perfect  male  of  the  horse  is  called  a  stallion  or  an  entire. 
When  altered  (castrated),  he  becomes  a  gelding.  The  female 
is  a  mare. 

The  young  is  called,  for  either  sex,  a  foal.  Specifically,  the 
male  foal  is  a  colt;  the  female  a  filly. 

A  colt,  or  filly,  becomes  of  age  when  the  corner  incisor  teeth 
grow  up  level  with  the  other  incisors  of  the  lower  jaw, — about 

*This  condition  has  been  realized  by  the  better  farmers  of  the 
country  for  some  years,  and,  due  to  this  fact  and  to  the  efforts  of  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  the 
quality  of  the  cheaper  grades  of  horses  is  being  rapidly  improved. 

fPage41,"  The  Arab  Horse,"  Spencer  Borden  (Doubleday,  Page 
&  Company,  New  York). 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPO  LOGY.  17 

five.  He  is  aged,  under  the  racing  rules,  at  seven,  when  he  is 
considered  thoroughly  mature. 

The  period  of  gestation  is  eleven  months.  The  age  of  the 
horse  is  usually  reckoned  from  the  first  of  January  preceding 
birth.  For  purposes  of  record,  a  thoroughbred  foal  becomes  a 
yearling  on  January  first  after  his  birth. 

To  aid  in  the  recognition  of  horses,  they  are  described  by 
giving  their  color,  sex,  age,  height,  color  of  mane  and  tail,  points, 
and  by  detailing  their  marked  peculiarities.  In  this  description 
certain  technical  terms  are  used: 

A  snip  is  a  patch  of  white  (skin  and  hairs)  on  the  nose. 

A  star  is  a  patch  of  white  hairs  in  the  center  of  the  forehead. 

A  blaze  is  a  streak  of  white  hairs  running  down  the  face, 
starting  from  the  star. 

A  horse  is  bald-faced  when  the  star  and  snip  are  connected 
by  a  broad  blaze. 

When  the  blaze  does  not  run  down  the  axis  of  the  nose,  it  is 
termed  a  race. 

White  hairs  on  the  legs  are  almost  always  limited  below  by 
the  hoof.  They  are  described  by  mentioning  their  upper  limits: 
white  heels,  white  coronets,  white  pasterns.  When  the  white 
color  extends  nearly  or  quite  to  the  knee  or  hock,  it  is  termed  a 
white  stocking  (Figure  3).  A  white  foot  is,  properly,  one 
where  the  hoof,  as  well  as  the  hairs  near  it,  is  white. 

A  horse  has  black  points  when  the  mane,  tail,  and  lower 
legs  are  black.  If  the  mane,  tail,  and  lower  legs  are  the  same 
color  as  the  rest  of  the  animal,  he  is  self-colored.  A  horse  is 
light  of  the  sort  when  he  is  paler  than  the  average  for  the  color. 
It  is  usually  a  sign  of  constitutional  debility. 

A  mane  is  roached  when  it  is  trimmed  close  on  each  side, 
leaving  a  short,  thin  line  of  hair  in  the  center  about  an  inch  long, 
running  the  length  of  the  crest  (Figure  4).  It  is  hogged  when  the 
mane  is  cut  closely  throughout  (Figure  3). 


18  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

A  tail  is  banged  when  it  is  cut  square  below  the  end  of  the 
dock  (Figure  2).  It  is  thinned  when  it  is  shortened  by  pulling 
and  breaking,  but  not  squared  off  (Figure  4).  It  is  docked  when 
the  dock  and  hair  both  are  cut  off  from  eight  to  eleven  inches 
from  the  root  of  the  tail. 

A  brand  is  a  mark  burned  in  the  skin  of  a  horse,  leaving  a 
scar  of  some  definite  design  to  establish  ownership. 

Clipping  is  the  process  of  shortening  the  hair  of  the  coat 
by  means  of  clippers. 

Singeing  is  the  process  of  burning  long  hairs  in  the  coat 
until  they  are  the  same  length  as  the  rest. 

Wire  cuts  are  the  scars  of  wounds  made  b  y  barbed-wire 
fences.  They  are  characteristic  in  appearance,  and  frequently, 
by  their  location,  cast  suspicion  upon  the  soundness  of  the  an- 
imal. Usually  the  wounds  causing  them  were  only  skin  deep, 
when  the  resulting  scars  are  merely  blemishes. 

A  rope  burn  is  a  scar  or  wound  made  by  chafing  the  skin 
of  the  fetlock  by  a  rope.  Like  a  wire  cut,  it  is  usually  only 
a  blemish. 

The  height  of  a  horse  is  determined  by  measuring,  in 
hands  of  four  inches  each,  the  altitude  of  the  top  of  the  withers. 
A  full-grown  horse,  fourteen  hands  two  inches  high  (written: 
14  :  2"),  or  less,  is  a  pony. 

Generally  speaking,  a  blemish  is  any  irregularity  that  mars 
the  beauty  or  symmetry  of  a  horse,  while  a  defect  is  one  that 
reduces  his  usefulness. 

The  forehand  of  a  horse  includes  that  part  in  front  of  the 
rider.     The  part  in  rear  is  termed  the  haunches. 

Of  a  pair  of  horses,  the  near  one  is  the  left,  the  off  one  is 
the  right.  The  near  side  of  a  horse  is  his  left  side ;  the  off  side, 
his  right. 

A  sound  horse  is  one  that  is  not  affected  with  any  disabling 
disease  or  injury;  an  unsound  horse  is  one  that  is  suffering 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPO  LOGY.  19 

from  any  malady,  acute  or  chronic,  however  slight,  or  that  has 
been  disabled  in  any  degree  by  disease  or  injury. 

An  acute  disease  is  one  attended  by  more  or  less  violent 
symptoms  and  coming  speedily  to  a  crisis,  while  a  chronic 
disease  is  one  that  continues  a  long  time,  mild  as  to  intensity 
and  slow  as  to  progress.  An  acute  disease  results  in  a  speedy 
recovery,  or  death,  or  it  may  assume  a  chronic  state.  A  chronic 
disease  is  difficult  to  cure,  and  yields  only  to  long-continued 
treatment. 

The  Law  of  Warranty. — When  a  horse  is  purchased,  the 
seller  should  furnish  a  bill  of  sale,  setting  forth  the  description 
of  the  horse  and  guaranteeing  certain  things,  as,  for  example, 
that  he  is  sound;  that  he  is  sound  and  kind;  that  he  is  serviceable 
for  certain  specific  work,  etc. 

This  bill  of  sale  is  the  new  owner's  guarantee  of  title  to  the 
horse.  It  also  insures  him  against  defects  existing  prior  to  the 
date  of  sale. 

A  warranty  does  not  go  forward  of  the  date  of  sale, 
unless  it  explicitly  states  so. 

If  a  person  buys  a  horse  that  goes  lame  immediately  or  soon 
after  purchase,  he  can  recover  on  the  guarantee  only  by  showing 
that  the  horse  exhibited  the  same  lameness  before  the  sale. 
Similarly  with  a  horse  warranted  kind  that  runs  away  or  balks 
after  sale.  Unless  the  new  owner  can  establish  similar  vicious- 
ness  before  the  sale,  he  cannot  recover  damages  from  the  former 
owner. 

This  arises  from  the  fact  that  all  that  can  justly  be  ex- 
pected from  the  seller  is  that  he  state  truly  in  his  warrant  what 
the  history  of  the  horse  has  been,  not  what  his  subsequent  history 
mav  be. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  21 

CempaBj  A.  Fifth  Be  of  Iufaitry, 

Second  Brigade.  M.  V.  M. 

CHAPTER    II. 


AGE,  AS  DETERMINED  BY  THE  TEETH. 

The  value  of  a  horse,  after  he  reaches  maturity,  is  propor- 
tioned to  the  remaining  period  of  his  usefulness.  It  is,  there- 
fore, of  importance  to  a  purchaser  to  know  approximately,  and 
without  being  compelled  to  rely  on  the  testimony  of  others,  the 
age  of  the  horse  he  is  buying. " 

It  is  very  easy  for  anyone,  however  little  he  may  be  familiar 
with  horses,  to  distinguish  the  young  from  the  very  old  animal. 
Signs  of  wear  are  apparent  in  the  stiffened  action,  in  blemishes 
on  the  members,  and,  more  than  all,  in  the  elasticity  of  the  skin. 
Aristotle  says:  "If,  in  pinching  up  the  skin  from  the  lips,  it  is 
promptly  retracted,  the  animal  is  young;  if  it  remains  wrinkled 
for  a  long  time,  he  is  old." 

Because  the  coat  hides  the  skin,  those  signs  of  age  that  the 
skin  betra}Ts  in  hairless  animals  cannot  be  detected  in  the  in- 
tervening years  between  youth  and  old  age.  For  our  guide 
during  this  period  we  must  go  to  the  teeth,  which  appear  and 
grow  and  change  their  shape  according  to  laws  that  are  fairly 
regular. 

Up  to  five  years  the  teeth  give  very  reliable  information; 
from  five  to  nine  this  information  is  good;  after  nine  the  limits 
of  error  increase  rapidly,  and  little  reliance  can  be  placed  on  the 
teeth  as  a  sole  means  of  judging  age.* 

*There  are  horsemen  who  claim  to  judge  accurately  the  age  of  all 
horses,  solely  by  their  teeth.  Such  a  claim,  while  honestly  made  by 
many  competent  horsemen  of  experience,  is  often  not  made  good  in 
practice.  The  teeth  do  furnish  an  excellent  suggestion  as  to  the  age 
of  the  horse—good  enough  to  protect  the  careful  observer  from  impo- 
sition— that  is  all  that  should  be  claimed  for  them  by  the  amateur 
horseman. 


22 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


The  back  teeth,  molars,  are 
six  in  number  on  each  side  of 
each  jaw;  those  in  the  lower  jaw 
are"shown  in  Figure  10. 

In  addition  to  these  twenty- 
four  molars,  another  molar  some- 
times appears  in  front  of  the 
others,  more  often  in  the  upper 
jaw  than  the  lower,  and  rarely  in 
both  jaws.  These  molars  are  ru- 
dimentary and  usually  tempo- 
rary, appearing  before  the  colt  is 
a  year  old  and  usually  disappear- 
ing before  he  is  three.  They 
sometimes  remain  indefinitely. 
These  teeth  are  usually  called 
wolf's  teeth,  but  are  sometimes 
called  blind  teeth,  from  a  fan- 
cied influence  on  the  horse's  sight. 

The  molars  are  difficult  to 
examine  on  account  of  their  loca- 
tion, and  their  usefulness  as  evi- 
dence as  to  age  ceases  at  five, 
when  all  the  temporary  ones 
T         have  been  replaced  by  perman- 

1  HE  LOWER  JAW-  .  •,  ■■  .         -i 

Bone  in  Plan,  Showing  Teeth  .ent  teeth,  whose  aspect   changes 

slowly. 

The  changes  in  the  other  teeth  are  quite  regular  up  to  that 
age.  For  this  reason,  inspection  of  the  molars  to  determine  age 
is  rarely  resorted  to. 

The  inspection  of  the  incisors,  the  twelve  teeth  in  the  an- 
terior portion  of  the  horse's  jaw,  is  the  usual  means  employed  to 
approximate  the  age  of  horses.  In  inspecting  them,  the  fol- 
lowing details  are  examined: 

First:    Whether  they  are  temporary  or  permanent. 

The  common  names  for  the  incisors,  naming  them  each  way 
from  the  middle  of  the  jaw,  are  center,  intermediate,  and 
corner. 


Figure  10.- 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  23 

When  the  foal  is  born  none  of  the  incisors  have  appeared. 
About  a  week  later  the  two  center  teeth  are  through  the  gums. 
In  a  month  the  intermediates  appear,  and  after  eight  or  nine 
months  more,  the  corner  teeth.  These  teeth  are  small,  thin,  and 
white,  and  of  little  interest  as  a  means  of  determining  age  to  the 
ordinary  observer.  Up  to  this  time  the  colt's  very  appearance 
marks  his  infancy — he  is  leggy,  small  in  the  body  and  neck,  his 
mane  and  tail  are  woolly  and  characteristic  in  appearance. 

For  the"  next  year  and  a  half,  to  the  casual  observer,  these 
teeth  change  but  little;  their  grinding  surfaces  wear  away,  but 
they  retain  much  the  same  appearance  they  had  at  one  year. 
Because  these  teeth  appear  while  the  colt  is  still  drawing  his 
sustenance  from  his  mother,  they  are  called  milk-teeth. 

Between  two  and  a  half  and  three  years,  the  center  milk- 
teeth  have  fallen  out  and  permanent  ones  have  taken  their  place. 
( When  the  horse  approaches  a  given  age — three,  for  instance 
— he  is  said  to  be  rising  three ;  after  he  has  passed  it,  he  is  three 
off  until  he  is  three  and  a  half;  after  that  period,  he  is  ris- 
ing four. 

The  age  of  the  colt  at  three  is  easily  determined  when  we  find 
the  center  incisors  permanent  and  the  rest  temporary. 

At  four  the  intermediate  temporary  teeth  are  shed  and  re- 
placed by  permanent  ones,  and  at  five  the  temporary  teeth  are 
all  gone. 

Figure  11  shows  very  plainly  the  difference  in  appearance  be- 
tween the  temporary  (corner)  and  the  permanent  (intermediate) 
teeth. 

Simply  by  opening  the  colt's  lips  the  observer  can  tell  his 
age  near  enough  for  all  ordinary,  purposes.  As  a  rule,  a  horse 
less  than  five  is  not  mature  enough  to  be  put  to  hard  work;  his 
development  is  not  complete,  and  what  would  be  quite  suitable 
employment  for  a  mature  horse  would  probably  prevent  the 
full  development  of  a  colt  and  by  so  much  destroy  his  future 
usefulness. 


Figure  11. — Temporary  (Corner)  and  Permanent  (Intermediate 
and  Center)  Teeth — Four  Years  Old. 


Figure  12. — Showing  Angle  of  Meeting  of  Upper  and  Lower 
Teeth  in  a  Horse  Twenty  Years  Old. 


Figure  13. — A  Parrot  Mouth. 


Figure  14. — An  Undershot  Jaw 


26  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

Sometimes  the  temporary  teeth  are  pulled  to  make  the  colt 
appear  older,  and  occasionally  the  corner  teeth  and  intermediate, 
especially  in  the  upper  jaw,  are  shed  at  nearly  the  same  time — 
about  four.     However,  this  is  not  the  rule. 

Second:  The  angle  at  which  the  teeth  of  the  two 
jaws  meet. 

The  younger  the  horse,  the  more  nearly  the  angle  made  by 
the  prolongation  of  the  front  faces  approaches  180  degrees.  This 
angle  becomes  more  and  more  acute  as  the  horse  grows  older. 
Compare  the  angle  made  by  the  outer  faces  of  the  upper  and 
lower  teeth  in  Figures  11  and  12. 

Third:    Whether  or  not  they  meet  accurately. 

If  the  teeth  do  not  meet  accurately,  the  tables  of  the  teeth 
do  not  wear  as  uniformly  as  in  the  normal  case  and  their  ap- 
pearance is  not  a  good  index  of  the  horse's  age. 

If  the  upper  jaw  is  longer  than  the  lower  one,  the  upper 
teeth  will,  when  the  mouth  closes,  project  beyond  the  lower  ones . 
This  malformation  is  termed  parrot  mouth.  The  contrary 
case,  much  more  rare,  is  termed  undershot.  The  cuts  on  the 
opposite  page  illustrate  each  case.  It  is  very  difficult  to  ap- 
proximate the  proper  age  of  horses  possessing  either  of  these 
malformations,  since  the  teeth,  not  meeting,  do  not  wear  away 
according  to  the  general  rule. 

The  horse  whose  mouth  is  shownW Figure  14  has  the  habit 
of  biting  at  the  woodwork  of  his  stall,  the  picket-rope — anything 
within  his  reach.  This  habit  is  known  as  cribbing,  and  is  the 
cause  of  the  wearing  away  of  the  upper  teeth.  This  animal  was 
known  to  be  between  eighteen  and  twenty  when  this  picture 
was  taken. 

Fourth:     The  appearance  of  their  outer  faces. 

The  teeth  of  a  young  animal  show  smoother  surfaces  (are 
less  stained  and  chipped  on  the  edges)  than  the  same  teeth  in 
older  horses.  Young  teeth  are  whiter  than  old  ones,  and  have  not 
such  pronounced  deposits  of  tartar  on  the  margins  of  the  gums. 
Compare  Figures  15  and  16. 


Figure  15. — Front  View  at  Four. 


Figure  16. — Front  View  at  Twelve. 


28 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


Fifth:     The  shape  of  the  corner  teeth. 

The  tables  of  the  teeth  are  the  surfaces  that  meet  when  the 
jaws  close.  When  the  permanent  corner  teeth  come  up,  at 
five,  the  profiles  of  their  tables  are  right  lines.  The  upper  tooth 
does  not,  usually,  meet  the  lower  tooth  exactly ,  but  projects 
slightly  to  the  rear.  As  the  teeth  wear  off  by  grinding  against 
each  other,  the  forward  part  of  the  upper  corner  tooth  wears  away 
faster  than  the  rear  part,  and  a  hook  appears.  This  hook-like 
appearance  is  characteristic  of  horses  seven  and  older,  if  the 

TWO  CORNER  TEETH  DO  NOT  MEET  THROUGHOUT.       Tf  they  do,  the 

teeth  will  wear  evenly,  and  the  profile  will  remain  a  right  line. 
The  hook  is  almost  never  present  at  five,  is  slight  at  six,  and  quite 
pronounced  at  seven.     Compare  Figures  17,  18,  and  19. 


Figure  17. — Side  View  at  Six. 


Figure  18. — Side  View  at  Seven, 


Figure  19. — The  Hook  at  Nine. 


30 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


Figure  20. — Longitudinal  Sec 

tion  of  Center  Incisor. 

Drawn  by  Capt.  C.  B.  Hagadorn, 

23d  U.  S.  Infantry. 


Sixth:  The  direction  and 
length  of  the  teeth. 

As  seen  in  the  cut,  Figure  20, 
the  tooth  in  its  original  shape 
curves  more  rapidly  towards 
its  outer  end.  The  shape  of 
the  remaining  portion  of  the 
tooth  is  not  altered  as  the  tooth 
wears  off  and  is  pushed  for- 
ward. The  height  of  the  mo- 
lars remains  fairly  constant, 
and  thus  the  distance  between 
the  jawbones  at  the  outer 
end  also  remains  constant. 

As  the  exposed  ends  of  the 
teeth  lose  their  curvature  and 
the  straighter  portion  of  the 
original  tooth  comes  into  view 
with  advancing  years,  they 
meet  farther  and  farther  to 
the  front,  and  the  visible  por- 
tion of  the  tooth  becomes 
longer.  Contrast  Figures  11 
and  12.  At  the  same  time  the 
teeth  become  narrower  in  di- 
ameter, and  so  appear  more 
closely  bunched  in  the  older 
animals.  Contrast  Figures  18 
and  23.  The  plumpness  of  the 
gums  is  less  in  old  horses  than 
inAyoung  ones.  Contrast  Fig- 
ures 11  and  12. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


31 


Seventh:  The  mark,  the  dental  star,  and  the  shape 
of  the  tables. 

All  the  details  above  enumerated  are  preliminary  to  the  ex- 
amination of  the  tables  of  the  teeth  and  confirmatory  of  what  is 
to  be  learned  from  them. 

The  structure  of  the  incisors  is  the  same  for  all:  A  central 
cavity,  the  pulp  cavity,  containing  the  nerves,  blood-vessels, 
and  secreting  tissues,  is  contained  in  the  axis  of  the  tooth.  Sur- 
rounding this  pulp  cavity  is  dentine,  a  dense  and  ivory-like  sub- 
stance, forming  the  body  of  the  tooth.  This  dentine  in  the  per- 
fect tooth 
has  a  deep 
hollow  i  n 
i  t  s  outer 
end.  Over 
the  surface 
I  of  the tooth 
and  lining 
the  depres- 
sion in  its 
outer  end, 
is  enamel, 
white,  very 
hard,  and 
of  varying  thickness.  The  depression  in  the  tooth  soon  becomes 
discolored  frorn  the  debris  of  decomposing  food  lodging  there.  The 
enamel  that  crowned  the  tooth  at  its  appearance  soon  wears  off,  but 
the  enamel  on  the  outside  of  the  tooth  and  that  lining  its  central 
depression  still  shows  in  cross-section  on  the  table  of  the  tooth. 
The  blackened  spot  in  the  center  of  the  tooth,  with  its  surround- 
ing ring  of  white  enamel,  is  called  the  mark,  and  is  present  in 
every  permanent  incisor  for  about  three  years  after  its  appear- 
ance. By  this  time,  in  the  ordinary  case,  the  grinding  of  the 
teeth  against  each  other  has  worn  off  that  part  of  the  tooth  con- 


Figure  21. — Cross-Section  of  Center  Incisor. 
Drawn  by  Captain  C.  B.  Hagadorn,  23d  U.  S.  Infantry. 


32  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

taining  the  depression,  but  for  another  year  the  discoloration  of 
the  body  of  the  tooth,  due  to  the  chemical  action  of  the  contents 
of  the  depression,  is  still  more  or  less  visible. 

As  the  tooth  wears  down  and  exposes  the  pulp  cavity,  its 
secreting  tissues  deposit  dentine  to  fill  up  the  cavity,  to  protect 
the  nerves  and  blood-vessels  from  injury.  The  dentine  so  formed 
is  yellower  in  color  than  the  original  dentine  of  the  tooth,  and  as 
the  tooth  gets  more  and  more  worn  down,  assumes  somewhat 
the  form  of  a  star,  hence  its  name,  dental  star.  At  first  this 
new  dentine  appears  as  a  yellowish  line  in  front  of  the  enamel  of 
the  mark.  This  is  because  the  pulp  cavity  is  spread  out  quite 
thin  near  the  end  of  the  perfect  tooth.  It  narrows  and  broadens 
deeper  in  the  tooth  until  its  final  shape  is  circular.  The  circular 
shape  is  not  found  until  the  horse  is  about  twelve,  although  this 
rule  is  extremely  elastic. 

At  three  or  four  the  observer  can  be  sure  enough  of  the 
horse's  age  without  looking  at  the  tables,  but  after  that  they 
should  be  consulted. 

At  five  the  horse's  mouth  presents  quite  positive  evidence 
of  his  age.  Looking  at  the  outer  faces  of  the  teeth,  they  appear 
smooth  and  clean.  The  edges  are  sharp;  there  is  no  hook  in  the 
upper  corner  teeth;  the  gums  are  plump;  the  horizontal  and 
vertical  axes  of  the  teeth  are  not  far  from  equal.  Looking  at  the 
tables,  the  mark  is  found  to  be  clear  in  all  the  teeth;  the  center 
and  intermediate  teeth  show  tables  nearly  rectangular  in  shape, 
and  the  axis  of  the  tables  at  right  angles  to  the  jawbone  is  nearly 
twice  as  long  as  the  other  one.  But  it  is  in  the  corner  tooth  that 
the  surest  evidence  is  found.  As  the  other  incisors  appear,  at 
three  and  four,  the  mark  is  entirely  surrounded  with  enamel,  but 
the  corner  tooth  comes  up  as  a  shell,  with  the  inner  wall  missing, 
and  not  until  the  tooth  has  been  in  use  for  from  six  to  nine 
months  is  the  outer  portion  of  the  wall  worn  down  to  the  level  of 
the  inner  portion.  This  peculiarity  of  the  corner  tooth  at  five, 
once  seen,  should  never  be  mistaken. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


33 


At  six  the  hollow  of  the  mark  has  been  worn  off  the  tables 
of  the  center  teeth,  but  the  enamel  is  still  there;  it  is  discolored, 
and  sometimes  appears  not  very  different  from  the  marks  in  the 
other  teeth — a  little  less  dark  and  its  margin  less  pronounced. 
The  mark  is  plainly  present  in  the  intermediates  and  corners, 
and  the  wall  of  the  corner  tooth  is  up  all  around.  The  tables  of 
the  teeth  at  six  usually  lose  something  of  the  rectangular  shape, 
becoming  more  rounded  on  the  longer  sides. 

Looking  at  the  exterior  faces  of  the  teeth,  the  hook  is  be- 
ginning to  appear  and  the  teeth  are  losing  their  fresh,  clean  ap- 
pearance. There  is  nothing  positive  to  go  by  in  the  six-year-old 
mouth,  except  the  presence  of  the  mark  in  the  intermediates 
and  corner  teeth,  and  even  this  is  sometimes  misleading:. 


Figure  22. — The  Tables  at  Five. 


Figure  24. — The  Tables[at[Seven. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY 


35 


Figure  25. — The  Tables  at  Eight. 


At  seven  the  yellowish  line  of  the  dentine  that  has  filled  up, 
the  pulp  cavity  shows  quite  plainly  in  the  center  teeth  and  may 
show  in  the  intermediates.  The  mark  is  gone  from  the  center 
teeth  and  faint  in  the  intermediates;  it  shows  quite  plainly  in 
the  corners.  The  tables  are  much  more  rounded  in  outline.  The 
exterior  aspect  of  the  teeth  is  quite  changed;  they  are  much 
longer  and  their  angle  of  meeting  is  more  acute.  The  hook  is 
now  plainly  visible,  except  in  those  mouths  where  the  posterior 
corners  of  the  corner  teeth  meet  exactly,  and  it  is  the  presence  of 
this  hook,  together  with  the  presence  of  the  mark  in  the  cor- 
ner teeth,  that  makes  the  seven-year-old  mouth  fairly  easy  to 
interpret. 

Dishonest  dealers  frequently  rasp  off  the  hook  to  make  the 
horse  appear  younger  than  he  is. 


36 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


Figure  26. — The  Tables  at  Nine 


The  central  enamel  is  still  present  in  all  the  teeth,  although 
the  discolored  portion  is  usually  worn  off  in  the  center  teeth. 

At  eight  the  mark  is  gone  from  all  the  teeth,  although  the 
corners  are  still  discolored  and  the  central  enamel  is  found  in  all 
of  them.  The  line  of  the  dental  star  is  better  defined  in  the 
center  teeth.  The  tables  are  more  rounded  than  before  and  the 
line  joining  their  centers  is  a  flatter  curve  than  in  the  younger 
mouths.  A  comparison  of  Figures  22,  23,  24,  and  25  will  show 
the  gradual  flattening  of  this  curve. 

Viewed  from  the  side,  the  angle  of  meeting  of  the  teeth  has 
grown  much  more  acute  than  at  seven. 

The  principal  test  to  be  used  in  distinguishing  between  an 
eight  and  a  nine-year-old  mouth  is  to  see  whether  the  central 
enamel  is  gone  from  the  center  teeth.     If  it  is  still  present,  the 


ELEMENTS    OF    H1PP0L0GY.  37 

horse  is  probably  eight;  if  it  is  worn  off,  he  is  probably  at  least 
nine.  Just  as  the  presence  of  the  temporary  teeth  shows  the 
colt-age,  so  the  absence  of  the  central  enamel  shows  that  the 
horse  is  more  than  eight — that  he  is  "  past  telling' '  with  any  degree 
of  certainty.  It  is  much  more  difficult,  even  with  this  central 
enamel  as  a  test,  to  distinguish  between  the  eight-  and  the  nine- 
year-old  horse  than  it  is  to  tell  a  four-year-old  from  a  five- 
year-old. 

In  fact,  it  must  be  impressed  upon  all  that  there  is  no  in- 
violate rule  for  the  growth  and  wear  of  the  teeth.  Differences 
in  the  density  of  the  dentine,  differences  in  food  and  method  of 
feeding,  or  bad  stable  habits,  will  cause  teeth  to  vary  widely  in 
appearance  in  horses  of  the  same  age. 

At  nine  the  tables  of  the  center  teeth  are  quite  rounded,  the 
dental  star  is  much  more  rounded  in  them  than  before. 

From  nine  on  the  indications  of  the  horse's  age  become  in- 
creasingly less  reliable.  Mayhew  says:  "The  greater  the  num- 
ber of  years,  the  more  difficult  it  is  to  arrive  at  the  exact  determi- 
nation of  the  age.  After  the  twelfth  year  there  is  but  little  prob- 
ability of  judging  it  correctly;  after  the  sixteenth,  all  is  con- 
fusion, for  there  are  no  positive  signs  that  will  enable  us  to  give 
a  definite  opinion  upon  this  point,  and  it  is  better  now  to  be 
cautious,  or  remain  silent."* 

The  amateur  had  better  go  farther  than  that  and  refrain 
from  any  positive  judgment  after  nine. 

When  the  dental  star  becomes  round  and  the  tables  tri- 
angular, the  horse  is  probably  twelve  or  more;  and  when  the 
necks  of  the  teeth  become  small  and  widely  separated,  he  is  ap- 
proaching very  near  to  the  end  of  Ms  period  of  usefulness. 

In  judging  horses  for  age  it  is  best  to  proceed  leisurely. 
Open  the  horse's  lips,  and  view  first  the  faces  from  the  side. 
Look  for  temporary  teeth;  see  if  the  teeth  meet  evenly;  see  if 
the  upper  corner  tooth  has  a  hook;  observe  the  plumpness  of  the 

*"The  Horse's  Mouth,"  Edw.  Mayhew,  3d  edition,  p.  104. 


38 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


Figure  27.— The  Tables  at  Twenty 


gums;  the  edges  of  the  teeth,  to  see  if  they  are  chipped;  their 
margins  near  the  gums;  for  tartar.  Look  next  at  the  front  faces 
of  the  teeth,  and  compare  the  relative  lengths  of  the  axes  of  the 
center  teeth,  remembering  that  the  greater  the  disparity  in  these 
lengths,  the  older  the  horse.  Next,  open  the  horse's  mouth,  and 
look  at  the  tables.  The  first  thing  to  notice  is  the  table  of  the 
corner  teeth  to  see  if  the  wall  has  grown  up  on  the  inside;  look 
for  the  mark,  the  shape  of  the  tables,  the  dental  star,  the  curva- 
ture of  the  line  joining  the  centers  of  the  tables,  and  the  slope  of 
the  inner  faces  of  the  teeth.  If  the  mark  is  gone  from  all  the 
lower  teeth,  look  for  it  in  the  upper.  The  horse  that  has  the 
mark  in  all  his  upper  teeth  is  probably  not  very  old — perhaps 
between  nine  and  thirteen,  probably  not  more  than  the  latter. 
Beware  of  triangular  tables;  they  are  never  found  in  the  young 
horse — always  in  the  old. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOOY. 


39 


Figure  28. 


An  Abnormal  Mouth — Mark  Clearly  Visible  in  All 
the  Teeth  at  Twelve. 


Having  applied  all  these  tests,  reconcile  all  discrepancies  as 
nearly  as  may  be  and  make  the  estimate  modestly,  remembering 
that  to  be  cock-sure  in  an  estimate  of  a  horse's  age  from  the  ev- 
idence of  his  teeth  alone,  is  a  sign  of  ignorance. 

Figures  16  and  28  show  the  front  view  and  the  view  of  the 
tables  of  a  horse  known  to  be  twelve  at  the  time  the  photograph 
was  taken.  He  was  a  restless  horse,  who  objected  to  a  scrutiny 
of  his  mouth,  and  the  first  hasty  glance  at  the  tables  showed  all 
the  marks  present  and  the  wall  of  the  corner  teeth  fully  grown 
up.  An  observer,  satisfied  with  that  evidence  alone,  might  say 
once,  "Six  years  old";  but  a  more  careful  look  at  the  shape 
of  the  tables  would  render  that  estimate  very  doubtful,  while  a 
single  glance  at  the  stained  and  chipped  exterior,  covered  with 


40  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

tartar,  the  long  vertical  axis  of  the  center  teeth  and  their  slope, 
would  confirm  the  error. 

A  horse's  teeth  are  said  to  be  bishoped  when  a  hole  in  the  im- 
itation of  the  mark  is  burned  in  his  teeth.  As  the  false  mark 
cannot  be  surrounded  by  the  enamel  of  the  genuine  one,  and  as 
the  other  tests  for  confirming  the  evidence  of  the  mark  will  nec- 
essarily fail,  the  deception  is  easy  of  detection.  It  is  a  trick 
rarely  resorted  to. 

The  tushes,  or  canine  teeth,  usually  appear  at  about  four, 
are  usually  perfect  at  five,  and  show  greater  or  less  signs  of 
wear  after  that. 

They  usually  are  absent  in  mares.  This  fact,  and  the  un- 
certainty of  the  time  of  their  appearance  and  their  rate  of  growth, 
makes  them  almost  useless  as  an  aid  to  the  determination  of  age. 
A  bright,  clean  tush,  showing  little  signs  of  wear,  is  a  good  index 
to  a  young  horse;  while  a  flat-topped,  chipped,  and  yellow  tush 
is  a  usual  accompaniment  to  age.  It  is  not  wise  to  place  much 
more  reliance  upon  them. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  41 


CHAPTER   III, 


INFLAMMATION.* 

In  all  the  higher  animals  the  tissues  (bones,  muscles,  cap- 
sules, ligaments,  tendons,  glands,  etc., — in  brief,  all  parts  of 
the  body)  are  nourished  and  kept  alive  by  the  circulation  of  the 
blood.  Blood  consists  of  a  pale-yellow  fluid,  carrying  in  it 
myriads  of  white  and  red  semi-solid  bodies  called  corpuscles. 

The  red  corpuscles,  under  conditions  of  health,  very  largely 
outnumber  the  white  ones.  They  are  without  volition  and  float 
along,  charged  with  oxygen  to  support  life  in  the  cells  composing 
the  tissues. 

The  white  corpuscles  have  a  volition  of  their  own;  they  act 
as  the  scavengers  of  the  tissues.  They  have  the  power  of  ab- 
sorbing and  of  digesting  other  micro-organisms,  and  thus  protect 
the  body  from  disease  germs. 

Blood,  leaving  the  heart  through  the  aorta,  is  carried  by 
the  arteries,  branching  and  rebranching,  to  arterioles,  which 
terminate  in  capillaries.  The  arteries  and  arterioles  have  im- 
pervious walls,  but  the  capillaries,  subdividing  into  a  veritable 
lace-work,  so  as  to  reach  the  neighborhood  of  every  element, 
have  cellular  walls,  which  permit  the  passage  through  them  of 
the  fluid  and  solid  parts  of  the  blood.  In  the  capillaries  the  flow 
of  blood  is  uniform,  when  in  a  state  of  health,  towards  the  vein- 

*This  subject  is  introduced  at  this  point  because  it  is  an  absolute 
necessity  to  understand,  in  a  way,  what  inflammation  is,  what  pro- 
duces it,  and  how  to  reduce  it,  in  order  to  properly  understand  what 
follows. 

This  chapter  is  adapted  from  the  discussions  of  the  subject,  pp. 
487-493,  in  the  chapter  on  General  Diseases  in  the  work  of  the  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry  on  the  "  Diseases  of  the  Horse."  The  cuts  are 
copied  from  cuts  in  that  work.  This  is  a  work  that  should  be  in  the 
hands  of  every  horse-owner. 


42 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIFi'OLOGY. 


lets — the  termination  of  the  veins  that  carry  the  blood  back 
to  the  heart. 

Figure  29  shows,  highly  magnified,  a  healthy,  living  mem- 
brane of  a  frog.  The  broad  band,  aa,  on  the  left  of  the  cut,  is 
a  veinlet;  c  is  a  capillary.  The  lighter^colored  disks  in  the  ves- 
sels and  in  „  0 
the  con- 
necting tis- 
sues are 
white  cor- 
puscles; the 
darker  ones 
are  red  cor- 
puscles. 


Ordinari- 
ly, the  red 
corpuscles 
float  in  the 
center  o  f 
the  current, 

while  the  white  ones,  due  to  a  certain  volition  of  their  own, 
float  along  near  the  walls  of  the  capillaries.  The  nutrition,  re- 
ceived into  the  blood  from  the  digestive  apparatus,  as  will  be 
shown  later  on,  replaces  worn-out  tissues.  The  oxygen  of  the 
red  corpuscles  is  consumed  in  maintaining  the  heat  of  the 
body,  and  the  blood  flows  on,  taking  with  it  the  dead  cells  of 
worn-out  tissues,  the  red  corpuscles,  largely  deprived  of  their 
oxygen,  and  the  white  corpuscles,  with  their  burden  of  absorbed 
germs,  through  the  veins  in  a  steady  stream  to  the  heart.  From 
there  it  is  pumped  into  the  lungs,  blue  in  color  and  exhausted  of 
vitality,  to  be  vitalized  with  oxygen  and  relieved  of  its  waste 
matter.  From  the  lungs  it  goes  back  to  the  heart  again,  purified 
and  enriched,  to  repeat  its  function.     As  the  result  of  repeated 


Figure  29. 


-Highly  Magnified  Living   Membrane 
of  a  Frog,  Non-inflamed. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY 


43 


3 


experiments,  it  has  been  estimated  that  it  takes,  in  the  horse, 

thirty-one   seconds   for  the   blood  to   complete   this   round  of 

circulation. 

If  the  flow  of  the  blood  in  the  capillaries,  for  any  reason, 

is  impeded,  the  white  corpuscles  pass  through  the  walls  of  those 

vessels  and 

accumulate 
2 

in        the 

neigh  b  o  r  - 
ing  tissues. 
These  cor- 
pusclespos- 
sess  the 
power  o  f 
mult  i  p  1  y- 
ing  indefi- 
nitely, and 
with  great 
rapidity;, 
the  nucleus 
of  one  cor- 
puscle di- 
vides into 
two,  and 
each  of  these  into  others,  and  so  on.  The  cells  that  largely 
compose  the  tissues  possess,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  this  same 
property,  and  it  is  the  accumulation  of  these  minute  organ- 
isms that  accounts  for  the  swelling  that  accompanies 
inflammation. 

In  Figure  30  is  shown,  magnified  to  the  same  power  as  in  the 
preceding  cut,  a  similar  living  membrance,  but  inflamed.  The 
multiplication  of  the  corpuscles  is  clearly  shown,  and  also  the 
migration  of  the  white  corpuscles.* 

*Let  it  be  understood  that  this  discussion  is  the  merest  outline  of 
the  wonderful  processes  of  nourishment  and  destruction  of  living  tis- 


mmm 


EPS     :. 


Figure  30. 


%s 


Highly  Magnified   Living  Membrane 
of  a  Frog,  Inflamed. 


44  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

Inflammation  itself  may  be  described  as  the  perverted 
nourishment  of  any  part.  An  injury,  the  presence  of  a  foreign 
body,  or  some  abnormal  quality  of  the  blood  itself  chokes  the 
flow  of  blood  through  the  capillaries  and  the  veins.  The  heart 
keeps  pumping  blood  into  the  affected  region,  and  there  is  no 
corresponding  drain.  This  excess  of  blood  is  forced  through  the 
walls  of  the  capillaries,  the  tissues  become  overcharged  with  it, 
and  the  cells  and  white  corpuscles,  over-stimulated,  begin  to 
multiply.  Crowding  together,  by  their  own  numbers  they  soon 
deprive  each  other  of  the  necessary  nourishment,  and  they  die. 
Other  germs,  less  beneficent  than  the  cells  and  white  corpuscles, 
if  present  in  the  tissues,  or  if  introduced  by  the  cause  of  the  in- 
flammation, take  this  occasion  to  multiply,  to  destroy  other  cells, 
and  to  die  themselves  in  turn.  These  dead  cells,  corpuscles,  and 
germs,  suspended  in  the  fluid  of  the  blood,  form  the  whitish, 
malodorous  substance  known  as  pus. 

Figure  31  shows  a  section  of  the  uninflamed  wing  of  a  bat, 
much  less  highly  magnified  than  in  the  preceding  cuts.  The  en- 
largement is  not  enough  to  show  the  capillaries  connecting  the 
arteries  and  veins.  The  same  .spot  in  the  membrane  was  then 
wounded  with  a  needle,  inflammation  set  in,  and  Figure  32  shows, 
under  the  same  microscope,  the  enlargement  of  the  capillaries, 
due  to  the  increased  flow  of  blood,  and  the  accumulation  of  the 
corpuscles. 

Often  there  is  an  unnatural  accumulation  of  blood  in  any 
part,  caused  either  by  an  increased  flow  of  blood  to  the  part  or 
by  an  obstruction  that  prevents  the  free  exit  of  the  blood  through 
the  veins  from  the  tissue  affected.  This  is  called  congestion  of 
the  part.     In  either  case  there  is  an  increased  supply  of  blood, 

sues;  that  it  is  very,  very  inadequate.  The  term  "corpuscle"  is 
wrongly  used  to  describe  all  the  bodies  carried  in  the  fluid  of  the 
blood  and  "cell"  to  indicate  the  atoms  of  which  the  tissues  are  built. 
"Germ"  is  used  to  vaguely  designate  those  living  micro-organisms 
that  laymen  should  be  willing  to  dismiss  with  the  knowledge  that  one 
must  be  verv  wise  to  understand  them. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


45 


and,  as  a  result,  increased  combustion  (oxidation),  manifested  by 
heat,  and  augmented  nutrition,  manifested  by  swelling. 

Pus  may  be  confin- 
ed by  limiting  mem- 
branes provided  by 
Nature  to  prevent  the 
migration  of  the  pus 
to  sound  tissues. 
Such  a  sore  is  termed 
an  abscess.  If  the 
pus  escapes  externally 
from  an  abscess  and 
the  channel  of  escape 
is  similarly  lined  by 
a   limiting  membrane. 


Figure  31. — Highly  Magnified  Section 
of  the  Wing  of  a  Bat,  Not  Inflamed.      the  channel   is  termed 

a  sinus. 

Pus  forming  with- 
out such  a  limiting 
membrane  invades  the 
surrounding  tissues 
and  destroys  them. 
Such  a  sore,  when  open 
is  called  an  ulcer. 

Any  injury  or 
wound  in  which  pus 
forms  is  said  to  sup- 
purate or  to  be  in- 
fected. If  the  pus  is 
absorbed  into  the  cir- 
culation while  the  in- 
jurious germs  are  still 
active,  abscesses  are  sometimes  set  up  in  organs  distant  from 
the  original  injury;    at  other  times  the  infection  attacks  the 


Figure  32. — Highly  Magnified  Section 
of  the  Wing  of  a  Bat,  Inflamed. 


46  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

corpuscles  of  the  blood  itself,  destroying  them.  In  either  case 
blood-poisoning  is  said  to  have  set  in. 

Sometimes  the  affected  part  dies.  This  is  said  to  be  mor- 
tification or  gangrene  in  soft  tissues,  and  necrosis  in  bone. 

The  local  signs  of  inflammation  are  redness  of  varying 
degree,  pain,  swelling  (except  in  bone),  and  heat.  The  gen- 
eral symptoms  are  fever  and  loss  of  condition.  In  aggravated 
cases  the  vital  organs  gradually  suspend  their  function,  and 
death  from  exhaustion  results. 

The  treatment  of  inflammation  is  the  same  in  principle 
whatever  be  the  part  inflamed.  Inflammation  is  hypernutri- 
tion,  attended  by  excessive  blood-supply.  Any  agent  which  will 
reduce  the  blood-supply  and  prevent  the  excessive  nutrition  of 
the  elements  of  the  part  will  serve  as  a  remedy.  The  means 
employed  may  be  used  locally  to  the  parts,  or  they  may  be  con- 
stitutional remedies,  which  act  indirectly. 

In  the  treatment  of  sick  horses,  as  in  the  treatment  of  ailing 
human  beings,  the  administration  of  drugs  should  be  sparingly 
resorted  to  by  amateurs.  Proper  feeding  and  watering,  cleanli- 
ness and  sanitation  in  stables,  and  careful  nursing,  will  keep 
veterinary  bills  down. 

Indiscriminate  use  of  drugs  is  seldom  beneficial  or 
economical. 

In  all  cases  of  inflammation,  seek  first  to  remove  the 
exciting  cause.  This  may  be  some  foreign  substance,  which 
irritates  the  animal  directly,  or  it  may  be  some  decomposing 
substance,  full  of  disease  germs,  in  the  stable. 

Rest  is  the  next  requisite.  Motion  induces  an  increased 
flow  of  blood,  and  blood  supplies  the  food  for  inflammation. 
The  patient  should  be  in  a  darkened  stall,  free  from  noise  or 
anything  that  will  excite  him. 

Cold  and  hot  applications  reach  the  same  end  by  opposite 
means.  Cold  applications — ice-bags,  cold  bandages,  fomenta- 
tions, etc- — contract  the  blood-vessels  and  soothe  the  nerves, 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  47 

while  warm  applications,  either  wet  or  dry,  increase  the  circula- 
tion by  expanding  the  blood-vessels,  and  so  put  an  end  to  the 
congestion  existing  in  the  inflamed  part. 

In  cases  of  chronic  inflammation,  the  surrounding  tissues 
may  have  been  left  so  weakened  by  it  that  they  do  not  perform 
their  functions  properly.  Then  they  need  stimulating  to  allow 
them  to  recover  strength  by  the  application  of  liniments  con- 
taining mild  stimulants,  or  by  massage.  If  this  does  not  bring- 
about  satisfactory  results,  a  veterinarian  should  be  consulted. 
Blood-letting,  the  use.  of  severe  counter-irritants — blistering  or 
firing — or  the  use  of  strong  tonics  or  stimulants,  should  not  be 
attempted  by  amateurs. 

In  all  cases  of  inflammation  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
to  limit  the  diet  to  small  quantities  of  easily  digested  foods, 
freshly  prepared  and  frequently  offered.  Food  should  not 
be  permitted  to  remain  before  the  patient  long.  If  refused  or 
only  partly  eaten,  remove  it,  clean  the  manger  thoroughly,  and 
offer  a  fresh  supply  in  a  couple  of  hours.  No  invalid  is  more 
capricious  about  his  food  than  a  sick  horse. 

When  the  tissues  have  been  destroyed  by  inflammation, 
they  are  replaced  by  the  formation  of  new  tissues,  different  from 
the  old  in  appearance  and  structure.  This  new  tissue  is  called 
a  scar. 


48 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


THE  HEAD  AND  NECK. 

The  relation  of  the  bones  to  the  soft  tissues  of  the  head  and 
neck  is  shown  in  Figure  33. 

The  face  is  that  part  of  the  head  seen  from  directly  in  front, 
between  the  nostrils  and  the  forelock. 

The  forehead  includes  that  part  of  the  face  between  the 
forelock  and  a  line  drawn  between  the  inner  corners  of  the  eyes. 


Figure  34. — Skeleton  of  Forehand. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


49 


The  temples  are  the  regions  at  the  sides  of  the  forehead, 
between  the  eye  and  the  ear. 

The  nose  is  that  part  of  the  face  below  the  forehead  and 
above  the  nostrils. 

The  cheeks  are  the  two  sides  of  the  head,  to  right  and  left 
of  the  face. 

The  muzzle  includes  the  nostrils  and  lips. 


Figure  35. — Head  of  a  Well- 
Bred  Horse,  Front  Face. 


Figure  36. — Head  of  a  Well- 
Bred  Horse,  Profile. 


The  brain  of  a  horse  is  very  small,  about  the  size  of  a  polo 
ball.  To  destroy  a  horse  by  shooting,  aim  at  the  intersection  of 
two  imaginary  lines  drawn  from  each  eye  to  the  diagonally  op- 
posite ear.  If  the  revolver  is  held  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of 
the  face,  a  shot  thus  placed  will  instantly  and  painlessly  destroy 
the  animal. 

In  the  well-bred  horse  the  head  should  be  of  medium  size, 
lean,  wide  between  the  eyes,  finelyjchiselled  and  terminating 

—5— 


50  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

wide  at  the  nostrils.  It  should  be  wide  from  the  eye  to  the 
angle  of  the  jaw;  wide  under  the  jaw,  wide  at  the  base  of  the 
skull  (where  the  head  and  neck  join).  The  nose  should  be 
straight;  the  nostrils  large,  wide,  and  without  many  hairs. 
The  fleshy  borders  of  the  nostrils  should  be  thin,  firm,  and 
sensitive. 

The  ears  should  be  small,  fine,  and  nervously  alert.  In 
changing  position  from  front  to  rear,  they  should  describe  small 
circles.     They  should  not  droop  to  right  and  left. 

Horses  possess  very  acute  sense  of  hearing,  and  the  ears, 
large  and  funnel-shaped,  locate  the  direction  of  the  origin  of 
noises  by  rotating  until  the  maximum  sound  is  received.  "As 
flight  (running  away)  is  the  horse's  chief  natural  means  of  self- 
protection,  he  has  great  ability  in  turning  his  ears  to  the  rear 
without  altering  the  forward  position  of  his  head.  In  a  pitched 
battle  with  carnivorous  enemies,  wild  horses  employ  their  eyes 
and  ears,  as  a  rule,  in  a  backward  direction,  while  using  their  hind 
feet  as  weapons  of  assault;  and  even  when  making  a  forward 
rush  at  an  enemy,  they  almost  always  'put  back'  their  ears. 
The  fact  of  a  horse  looking  backwards  is  at  once  made  manifest 
by  his  showing  'the  whites  of  his  eyes.'  These  actions  of  eyes 
and  ears  are  so  closely  connected  uT  the  horse  with  fear  and 
anger  that  he  often  performs  them  without  any  direct  incentive 
when  influenced  by  these  feelings.  Hence,  all  experienced  horse- 
men regard  an  unprovoked  putting  back  of  the  horse's  ears  and 
showing  of  the  whites  of  his  eyes  as  a  reliable  warning  to  'look 
out,'  " 

It  is  to  be  remarked  that  the  signs  of  warning  above  men- 
tioned are  usually  accompanied  by  a  contracting  and  flattening 
of  the  nostrils. 

The  ill-bred  horse  shows  a  heavy  head,  narrow  brain- 
space,  contracted  jaws,  coarse  throat-latch,  and  loosely  hung,  in- 
sensitive ears.  His  muzzle  is  set  thickly  with  coarse  hairs,  has 
small  nostrils,  and  too  much  flesh  in  the  lips  and  margins  of  the 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPP '0 LOGY '. 


51 


nostrils.  Nothing  is  clear-cut  about  his  head.  His  general  ap- 
pearance, when  in  repose,  is  sleepy  and  lymphatic;  when  in  ac- 
tion, sulky  and  unwilling. 


Figure  37. — The  Ill-Bred  Horse,     Figure  38. — The  Ill-Bred  Horse, 
Full  Face.  Profile. 

The  eyes  should  be  full,  clear  and  bright,  and  symmetrically 
placed.  They  should  not  be  watery;  the  pupils  should  be  black 
and  of  equal  size.  The  lids  should  be  thin  and  firm.  The  eye, 
to  inspire  full  confidence  in  the  horse,  should  be  large,  prom- 
inent— to  secure  a  large  field  of  vision — and  kindly  in  expression. 

The  eye  is  a  sphere,  con- 
taining two  chambers  (Fig- 
ure 39) :  one,  the  anterior, 
is  filled  with  aqueous  hu- 
mor ;  the  other,  many  times 
larger,  with  vitreous  hu- 
mor. The  lining  of  the  pos- 
terior chamber  of  the 
retina,  the  development  of 
the  optic  nerve.  Between 
the  two  chambers  is  placed 


Figure  39. — The  Eye,  in  Cross- 
Section. 


52  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

the  crystalline  lens.  In  front  of  the  anterior  chamber  is  the 
cornea.  The  cornea,  crystalline  lens,  and  the  two  humors,  are 
perfectly  transparent  in  the  healthy  eye.  The  crystalline  lens 
is  screened  by  the  iris,  a  sensitive  membrane  that  is  pierced 
at  its  center  by  the  pupil.  The  iris  is  capable  of  expanding  and 
contracting,  and  so  can  regulate  the  supply  of  light  admitted  to 
the  retina  through  the  pupil. 

Looking  closely  into  the  sound  eye,  a  fringe  of  sooty,  spongy 
aspect  will  be  seen,  attached  to  the  edge  of  the  iris,  heavier  above 
than  below.  It  is  called  the  corpora  nigra,  and  is  a  provision 
of  Nature  to  partially  absorb  the  light  entering  the  eye  and  to 
supply  the  protection  given  to  the  human  eye  by  the  overhanging 
eyebrow. 

The  pupils  should  dilate  and  contract  equally  and  freely, 
The  iris  should  be  of  uniform  color.  Frequently  there  is  lack  of 
color  in  the  iris.  The  visible  effects  of  this  condition  is  the 
whitish' ring  surrounding  the  pupil,  known  as  wall-eye. 

An  opacity  of  the  cornea  is  a  positive  defect  that  limits  the 
field  of  vision  of  the  horse.  Such  a  horse  is  usually  a  shyer, 
nervous  and  undesirable  for  any  sort  of  fast  work. 

The  wall-eyed  horse  must  not, be  confused  with  the  horse 
that  "  shows  the  white  of  his  eye,"  already  discussed.  In  the 
ordinary  case  the  white  does  not  show,  but  an  excitable,  nervous 
horse,  suffering  from  timidity  or  fear,  will  open  his  eyes  unduly 
wide  and  so  show  the  whites  of  them.  It  is  a  sign  of  nervousness 
or  vice,  or  both,  and,  while  often  merely  the  result  of  brutal 
treatment,  is  always  an  undesirable  quality. 

As  a  protection  to  the  eye,  to  remove  foreign  particles  that 
adhere  to  its  outer  surface,  Nature  provides  the  haw,  a  thin  mem- 
brane that,  in  a  restful  state,  appears  as  a  thin  fold  at  the  inner 
angle  of  the  eye.  When  the  eye  is  irritated  by  dust,  hail,  chaff, 
or  the  like,  the  ball  is  slightly  withdrawn  into  the  socket  and  the 
haw  is  stretched  across  the  eye,  removing  mechanically  the.  ir- 
ritant, assisted  by  a  profuse  flow  of  tears, 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  53 

Blindness  is  common  among  horses.  If  it  results  from  an 
injury  to  the  external  eye  or  from  cataract,  it  is  easy  of  discovery; 
if  from  disease  in,  or  destruction  of,  the  optic  nerve,  it  is  not 
so  apparent. 

A  cataract  shows  itself  as  a  milky  opacity  in  the  interior 
of  the  eye.  Its  seat  is  in  the  crystalline  lens  or  its  coverings. 
What  is  known  as  the  candle  test  is  the  surest  method  of  de- 
termining whether  an  opacity  in  the  eye  is  or  is  not  a  cataract. 
In  a  partially  lighted  place  a  lighted  candle  is  held  in  front  of  the 
eye.  If  the  eye  is  perfect,  three  images  will  be  seen — one,  the 
front  one,  erect,  is  the  reflection  from  the  outer  surface  of  the 
cornea;  the  second,  also  erect,  is  the  reflection  from  the  front 
surface  of  the  crystalline  lens;  the  third,  inverted,  is  the  reflection 
from  the  back  of  the  lens.  As  the  candle  is  raised  or  lowered,  the 
first  and  second  images  go  up  or  down,  the  third  moves  in  a  con- 
trary direction.  If  a  cataract  is  present,  the  inverted  image  is 
blurred,  or  wanting  altogether;  if  the  trouble  is  in  front  of  the 
lens,  there  will  be  but  one  distinct  image. 

A  good  preliminary  test  for  blindness  is  to  raise  the  hand 
from  below  to  the  level  of  the  eye  and  near  it,  then  to  withdraw 
it,  but  not  so  rapidly  as  to  cause  appreciable  air-currents.  If 
the  horse  does  not  wink  or  dodge,  there  is  grave  suspicion  cast 
at  once  on  his  vision  in  that  eye. 

In  order  to  give  lightness  to  the  head,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  afford  room  for  the  attachment  of  the  various  muscles  of  mas- 
tication, some  of  the  bones  of  the  horse's  face  are  hollowed  out, 
leaving  blind  cavities,  opening  only  downward.  These  cavities 
are  called  the  facial  sinuses,  and  seem  to  have  no  function, 
except  that  mentioned. 

The  neck  includes  seven  of  the  vertebrae  of  the  spinal 
column.  The  muscle  that  moves  the  foreleg  forward  is  attached 
to  the  head  and  the  first  four  of  the  neck  vertebrae;  the  longer  this 
muscle  is,  the  greater  will  be  its  contractibility  and  consequent 
leverage  on  the  bones  of  the  foreleg  and  the  stronger  will  be  the 


54  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

action  of  the  limb.  In  saddle-horses,  nothing  is  to  be  gained  by 
increasing  the  weight  of  the  neck  muscles  beyond  that  necessary 
to  give  a  sure  and  graceful  carriage  to  the  head  and  a  quick  and 
free  forward  swing  to  the  front  leg.  The  neck  should,  therefore, 
be  long  and  slender,  without  too  marked  a  crest.  (Figure  1.) 
The  neck,  at  its  upper  end,  should  be  spare  and  flexible.  This 
condition,  together  with  width  between  the  jaw-bones,  is  neces- 
sary in  saddle-horses;  without  it,  they  are  stiff  and  unhandy. 

The  horse  shown  in  Figure  40  is  an  example  of  an  otherwise 
good  horse,  spoiled  by  too  much  flesh  in  the  neck.  He  has  the 
neck  of  a  stallion,  and  the  inference  is  that  he  was  gelded  com- 
paratively late  in  life.  Castration  is  usually  performed  when  the 
co^t  is  about  one  year  old.  If  the  operation  is  done,  as  is  some- 
times'the  case,  when  the  colt  is  very  young,  he  is  apt  to  be  under- 
developed in  the  forehand  when  he  is  matured.  If  the  time  of 
castration  is  postponed  until  two,  three,  or  later,  the  development 
of  the  forehand  will  more  and  more  resemble  that  of  a  stallion. 
The  operation  is  more  easily  and  more  safely  performed  on  a 
young  than  on  a  mature  animal. 

The  excess  of  flesh  on  the  crest  of  the  horse  in  Figure  40 — 
thirty  pounds  or  so — makes  it  impossible  for  him  to  handle  his 
head  and  neck  easily,  and  he  is  hard  to  turn  or  stop  quickly  in 
consequence.  He  is  not  a  good  drill-horse,  although  he  has  very 
comfortable  gaits  and  is  kind  and  willing. 

The  horse  shown  in  Figure  41  is  a  saddle-horse  "de  luxe." 
His  neck  is  thick  at  the  base,  but  it  is  light  at  the  crest  and  tapers 
nicely.     He  should  be  able  to  control  it  easily. 

A  ewe-necked  horse  is  one  whose  crest  is  concave. 

The  nasal  membranes  should  be  smooth,  moist,  of  uniform 
color,  and  of  a  bright  appearance.  Any  dullness  of  these  mem- 
branes, any  discharge  from  the  nostril,  and  any  ulceration,  or 
scars  of  old  ulcers,  should  be  viewed  with  gravest  suspicion  in 
examining  a  strange  horse. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


55 


Figure  40. — An  Overweighted  Neck 


Figure  41. — A  Saddle  Type. 
Courtesy  of  "The  Rider  and  Driver.' 


Glanders  is  a 
highly  contagious 
disease  of  germ  ori- 
gin, incurable,  and, 
in  this  latitude, 
usually  fatal.  It 
is,  of  all  diseases 
incidental  to  the 
horse,  the  most  ma- 
lignant and  the 
most  to  be  dreaded. 
It  is  highly  conta- 
gious to  human  be- 
ings also,  and  nec- 
essarily fatal  to 
them.  In  dealing 
with  a  case  of  glan- 
ders, the  greatest 
care  should  betaken, 
to  protect  one's  self 
from  the  germs. 

If  the  glanders 
germ  attacks  the  in- 
ternal organs  of  the 
horse,  the  disease  is 
known  as  glanders; 
but  if  it  attacks  the 
skin  or  the  vessels 
of  the  skin,  the 
disease  is  called 
farcy. 

Glanders  usually 
manifests  itself  by  a 


56  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

clear,  watery  discharge  from  one  nostril,  lighter  in  color 
than  in  the  case  of  a  common  cold.  "A  singular  char- 
acteristic of  glanders  is  that  it  generally  attacks  one  nostril 
only,  and  that  is  the  left  one;  only  a  few  cases  having  occurred 
where  it  commenced  in  the  right  nostril.  Mr.  Dupay,  a  cele- 
brated veterinary  surgeon,  and  director  of  this  school  of  sur- 
gery at  Toulouse,  mentions  that  out  of  eight  hundred  cases  of 
glanders,  which  occurred  during  his  practice,  only  one  was 
affected  in  the  right  nostril." 

Farcy  manifests  itself  in  small  tumors,  soft  at  first,  then 
breaking  into  an  ulcer.  "The  farcy  buttons  occur  most  fre- 
quently on  the  side  of  the  lips,  on  the  sides  of  the  neck,  the 
lower  part  of  the  shoulders,  the  inside  of  the  thighs,  or  the  out- 
side of  the  legs,  but  may  occur  on  any  part  of  the  horse." 

Farcy  is  always  accompanied  by  the  internal  form  of  the 
disease,  although  the  latter  may  not  be  manifested  by  the  nasal 
discharge. 

In  order  to  discriminate  between  glanders  and  other  diseases  of 
the  nasal  membranes,  the  mallein  test  is  frequently  resorted  to. 
Mallein  is  made  by  exposing  a  pure  culture  of  the  glanders  germ 
to  dry  heat  sufficient  to  kill  the  germs.  This  dead  culture  is  then 
treated  chemically  to  preserve  it  and  is  injected  hypodermically 
under  the  skin  of  the  neck,  usually,  of  the  suspect.  His  tem- 
perature is  taken  twenty-four  hours  before  the  injection  and 
again  at  the  time  of  the  injection.  It  is  then  taken  every  three 
to  six  hours  for  forty-eight  hours  afterwards.  If  the  place  of  in- 
jection becomes  materially  inflamed  and  remains  so  for  from  two 
to  five  days,  with  an  inflamed  spot  at  least  five  inches  in  diame- 
ter, and  a  persistent  rise  of  temperature  of  two  degrees  or  more 
is  noticed,  the  suspicion  is  fairly  well  confirmed.  The  animal 
should  then  be  allowed  to  remain  under  observation  in  isolation 
for  a  month.     If  now  the  test  is  applied  with  similar  results,  the 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  57 

animal  should  be  killed  and  burned  and  all  his  equipment  and 
surroundings  burned  or  thoroughly  disinfected.  If,  however,  on 
the  second  test  he  does  not  respond,  a  third  test  should  be  made 
at  the  end  of  another  month,  which  may  safely  be  regarded 
as  final. 

Any  horse  presenting  a  discharge  at  the  nostril  should  be  at 
once  isolated,  and  his  stall  and  all  his  equipment  thoroughly 
disinfected. 

Nasal  gleet  is  a  chronic  diseased  condition  of  the  nasal 
membranes  and  of  the  linings  of  the  facial  sinuses.  It  is  the 
result  of  neglected  colds  (bad  stable  management),  or  ulcerated 
teeth,  and  is  a  stubborn  disease  to  cure.  It  is  marked  by  a  dis- 
charge from  the  nostrils,  one  or  both,  offensive  odor,  and  fre- 
quently by  no  other  outward  symptom.  Nasal  gleet  and  glan- 
ders are  frequently  mistaken,  one  for  the  other. 

Influenza  is  a  highly  infectious  disease,  usually  of  brief 
duration.  True  influenza  usually  spreads  in  waves  of  contagion 
over  large  areas.  It  is  easily  spread  and  difficult  of  treatment. 
The  patient  is  stupefied,  hangs  its  head,  is  not  easily  roused;  the 
eyes  become  inflamed  and  tears  flow  profusely.  It  is  frequently 
followed  by  disabling  complications. 

Catarrh  is  inflammation  of  a  mucous  membrane.  It  is 
called  by  various  names,  depending  on  its  location. 

Cold  in  the  head  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  nasal  passages  and  neighboring  regions.  It  is  man- 
ifested by  dullness,  fever,  a  watery  discharge  from  the  nose,  and 
sometimes  by  an  inflamed  condition  of  the  eyes.  The  patient 
should  be  exercised  very  little,  placed  in  a  loose  stall,  well  ven- 
tilated, but  free  from  drafts.  Like  the  human  disease  of  the  same 
name,  the  watery  discharge,  as  the  disease  progresses,  becomes 
thicker  and  of  a  whitish  color.  Colds  in  the  head  ought  not  to  be 
neglected,  nor  should  animals  so  affected  be  put  to  severe  work 
until  cured. 


58  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

Strangles,  or  distemper,  also  an  infectious  disease,  mani- 
fests itself  by  catarrhal  symptoms  and  by  enlargements  of  the 
salivary  glands  lying  near  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw  (the  parotid 
glands).  In  the  general  case  these  glands  suppurate  and  make 
an  abscess  easily  recognized.  An  animal  usually  has  this  disease 
but  once,  and  rarely  after  becoming  of  age.  The  danger  from 
strangles  is  in  the  permanent  thickening  of  the  air-passages  and 
permanent  injury  to  the  breathing  apparatus  in  consequence. 

Poll-evil  is  an  obstinate  abscess  on  top  of  the  head.  It 
results  from  an  injury  received  there,  which  sets  up  an  inflama- 
mation  that  develops  into  an  abscess.  The  muscles  of  the  neck, 
in  the  region  of  the  poll,  extend  downward  and  backward.  Pus 
can  easily  burrow  in  between  them  and  follow  the  course  of  these 
muscles.  Since,  from  its  position,  such  an  abscess  cannot  readily 
drain  its  pus  unless  artificial  drainage  is  provided,  the  pus  will 
work  down  into  the  sound  tissues,  infecting  them  deeper  and 
deeper.  Any  abscess  where  natural  drainage  is  not  possible  is 
termed  a  fistula.  Like  other  fistulas,  poll-evil  is  the  result  of 
neglect. 

Blind  staggers,  or  congestion  of  the  brain,  is  a  brain 
disease,  similar  to  apoplexy.  A  horse  affected  with  it  will  fall 
down  and  struggle  about  in  a  spasmodic  fashion,  injuring  him- 
self in  his  spasm  and  threatening  injury  to  any  other  animal  near 
him.  It  is  a  not  uncommon  disease,  and  is  liable  to  recur  at  any 
time.  Relief  is  obtained  by  blood-letting.  The  jugular  vein  is 
opened,  and,  after  a  sufficient  amount  of  blood  is  drawn,  is  closed 
again,  leaving  a  scar  of  operation,  usually  not  hard  to  find  and 
always  worth  looking  for. 

The  jugular  channel  is  well  shown  in  Figure  8.  It  is  a 
groove  on  the  lower  margin  of  the  neck.  By  rubbing  the  thumb 
briskly  several  times  down  the  channel  with  considerable  pressure 
and  then  pressing  hard  at  the  lower  end  of  the  channel,  the 
jugular  vein  will  be  closed  by  the  pressure.  It  will  fill  rapidly 
from  above  with  blood  and  will  become  distended. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  59 

The  operation  of  blood-letting  is  sufficiently  simple  and  safe 
to  warrant  any  horse-owner  to  attempt  it  in  cases  of  blind  stag- 
gers or  congestion  of  the  lungs  in  emergencies  when  professional 
skill  is  not  available.  The  flow  of  blood  from  a  vein  is  easily 
controlled.  By  tying  a  stout  cord  around  the  base  of  the  neck 
tightly,  the  jugular  veins  will  be  compressed  enough  to  dilate 
them,  when  they  are  easily  seen.  The  fleam-blade  of  a  farrier's 
knife  is  used.  The  point  of  the  fleam  is  laid  near  the  vein  and  is 
driven  into  it  by  a  sharp  blow  of  a  stick  on  the  back  of  the  fleam. 
If  the  vein-wall  is  cut,  the  blood  will  flow  freely  in  a  constant 
stream.  It  should  be  caught  and  measured  as  it  flows.  From 
two  to  four  quarts  should  be  drawn — never  more  than  four- 
depending  on  the  size  and  condition  of  the  horse.  A  large,  fat 
horse  will  stand  the  loss  of  more  blood  than  a  smaller  horse  in 
thin  flesh  will. 

The  vein  can  be  closed  by  sticking  a  pin  through  the  walls  of 
the  vein  at  right  angles  to  the  cut  and  then  winding  horse-hair 
or  strong  linen  thread  around  the  ends,  figure  of  8  fashion. 

This  method  of  closing  wounds  is  a  very  useful  one  to  re- 
member. A  horse  whose  skin  has  been  cut  by  barbed  wire  or  by 
other  means  can  be  saved  an  ugly  blemish,  if  the  edges  of  the 
wound  are  at  once  pinned  together,  placing  the  pins  an  inch  or 
so  apart,  and  then  lacing  horse-hair  or  thread  around  the  ends 
of  the  pins. 

In  the  jugular  wound  the  pins  should  be  left  in  only  three 
or  four  days.  The  wound  in  the  skin  can  be  kept  open  by  put- 
ting a  plug  of  oakum  or  absorbent  cotton  in  it  until  the  pins 
are  withdrawn. 

Blood-letting  should  be  resorted  to,  without  professional  as- 
sistance, only  in  extreme  cases — when  it  is  evident  that  the 
animal  will  die  unless  relieved. 


60  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


CHAPTER   V. 


BITS— THEIR  ACTION,  INFLUENCE,  AND 
PROPER  USE.* 

A  bit  is  an  instrument  devised  to  convey  instructions 
to  the  horse  from  his  rider  in  accordance  with  a  set  of  sig- 
nals concerning  his  guidance  and  control,  whose  separate 
meanings  he  has  been  taught  to  know. 

The  perfectly  trained  horse  that  has  a  perfect  temper  needs 
a  bit  that  conveys  these  instructions  without  pain.  Such  horses 
are,  unfortunately,  rare,  so  bits  must  be  devised  that  not  only 
convey  instructions  as  to  gait  and  direction,  but  that  are  capable 
of  inflicting  pain  when  the  temper  of  the  horse  inclines  him  to 
disregard  these  instructions. 

The  point  of  application — the  seat — of  the  bit  is  on  the  bars 
of  the  horse's  jaw,  about  one-third  of  the  distance  from  the  tushes 
to  the  molars  (Figure  42). 

Figure  43  shows  a  simple  bar  bit  in  its  normal  position  on 
the  horse's  jaw.f  The  horse's  tongue  lies  in  the  opening  be- 
tween the  two  rows  of  teeth,  under  the  bit,  and,  at  rest,  fills  the 
space  under  the  bit  and  partially  supports  it. 

*An  effort  is  made  here  to  describe  only  the  action  of  ordinary 
bits  in  common  use,  on  normal  mouths.  The  subject  is  a  very  broad 
one,  and  must  necessarily  be  briefly  touched  on  here.  Captain  M. 
Horace  Haves'  admirable  work,  "  Riding  and  Hunting,"  contains  an 
exhaustive  discussion  of  this  subject. 

The  author  is  indebted  to  Major  Edwin  St.  J.  Greble,  3d  Field 
Artillery,  for  much  that  is  contained  in  this  chapter. 

fThe  same  bone  furnished  the  subject  for  this  picture  that  was 
used  in  Figures  42  and  44.  To  make  Figure  43  and  in  Figure  44  the 
bone  was  set  at  an  angle,  so  that  the  bearing  of  the  bit  would  show 
as  if  seen  from  the  front. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


61 


The  two  ridge-like'portions  of  the  bone  of  the  lower  jaw  be- 
tween the  molars  and  the  tushes  are  called  the  bars,  and  form  the 

points  of  application  for  the  bit. 
As  regards  their  action 
on  the  horse's  jaw,  bits  are 
classified  as  bar,  snaffle, 
and  curb  bits. 

A  bar  bit  is  an  unbroken 
bit  that  acts,  without  lever- 
age, directly  on  the  horse's 
jaw,  as  in  Figure  43.  The  bar 
bit  is  supported  partly  on  the 
bars  of  the  horse's  jaw  and 
partly  on  his  tongue.  This  is 
tough,  leathery,  and  insensi- 
tive. When  the  pressure  of 
the  bar  bit  on  the  horse's  jaw 
becomes  painful  to  the  bars, 
he  relieves  the  pain  by  thrust- 
ing his  tongue  further  under 
the  bit,  thereby  lifting  it  from 
the  bars  and  transferring  the 
pressure  to  his  tongue. 

To  nullify  this  action  of  the 
tongue  and  still  have  a  bit  that 
is  not,  with  proper  use,  exces- 
ThE  Lower  Jaw-Bone  sively  severe,  a  hinge  is  intro- 
duced in  the  center  of  the  bar 
bit,  and  the  resulting  bit  is  ealled  a  snaffle  bit. 

By  pulling  on  the  reins  of  a  snaffle  bit,  a  pincer  action  is  de- 
veloped by  the  closing  of  the  angle  between  the  halves  of  the 
mouthpiece.  This  raises  the  hinge,  lifting  the  mouthpiece  off 
the  tongue,  and  applies  pressure  to  the  bars  in  a  way  impossible 
of  relief  by  the  tongue. 


Figure  42. 

in  Plan,  Showing  Bit-Place 


62 


ELEMEXTX    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


The  snaffle  may  be  made  an  instrument  of  torture  by  jerking 
it  or  by  "sawing"  on  it. 

Both  bar 
and  snaffle 
bits  should 
have  large, 
generous 
mouthpieces 
and  should 
be  very  little 
longer  t  h  a  n 
the  width  of 
the  mouth, 
and  should  be 
s  o  adjusted 
t  h  a t  the 
mouth  piece 
touches  the 
corners  of  the 
mouth  when 
no  pressure  is 
applied  to  the 
rein. 

The  bar  bit 
is  more  used 
as  a  driving- 
bit,  the  snaffle 
for  r  i  d  i  n  g  . 
Both  bits  are 
manufactured 
in   a    great 

variety  of  shapes,  each  variation  designed  to  defeat  some  de- 
li snse  developed  by  horses  in  an  effort  to  avoid  pain.     The  bit 


Figure  43. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


63 


shown  in  Figures  44,  45,  and  46  is  a  very  useful  shape  for  a 
snaffle  bit. 

The  bit  that  has 
the  least  painful  in- 
fluence on  the 
horse's  mouth  i  s 
the  rubber-covered 
bar  bit.  Theoret- 
ically, this  is  the 
ideal  bit. 

Mechanically  any 
bit  not  having  lev- 
er action  acts  as 
shown  in  the  accom- 
panying plates. 

I  n  Figures  4  5 
and  46  AB  repre- 
sents, graphically, 
a  force,  acting 
through  a  pull  on 
the  reins  fastened 
to  a  bar  or  snaffle 
bit,  on  the  horse's 
jaw  at  A.  Resolv- 
ing this  force  into 
its  two  components, 
AE  at  right  angles 
to  the  horse's  jaw 
and  AD  parallel  to 
it,     AE    will    then 

„  represent  the  actual 

Figure  44.  .  -    .    . 

useful      restraining 

force  and  AD  the  wasteful  force,  operating  merely  to  raise  the 

horse's  head. 


64 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


The  force  AD  acts  on  the  corners  of  the  horse's  mouth,  or 
on  his  molars. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  this  lifting  effect  has  a  larger  influence 
on  the  attitude  of  a  young  horse  while  being  broken  than  in  the 


Figure  45. 

The  relative  lifting  and  restraining  influence  of  a  pull  exerted  with 
the  hands  held  low  and  the  horse's  head  nearly  vertical. 

case  of  an  old  horse  whose  schooling  is  over.  The  latter  learns 
to  meet  difficulties  of  this  sort,  if  not  made  vicious  or  sulky  by 
bad  treatment,  and  renders  good  service  in  spite  of  them  in  a 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


65 


manner   that    often    surprises   the   thoughtful  horseman.     The 
theory  that  the  horse  is  not  a  reasoning  animal  receives  severe 


Figure  46. 

Distribution  of  the  force  exerted  through  the  reins  when  the  hand  is 

held  too  high,  or  when  the  horse's  nose  is  thrust  to  the  front. 

tests  in  the  cases  of  honest,  faithful  animals  who  do  their  work 
well  in  spite  of  impatience,  conflicting  signals,  and  frequently 
abuse. 

—6— 


66 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


;®/l 


LOOP  FOR  LIP  STRAP ^ 


RING    FOR    REIN 


Figure  47. 


Figure  48. 


The  curb  bit  (Figures  47  and  48)  is  a  bit  operating  on  an 
entirely  different  principle  from  the  two  other  kinds  just  dis- 
cussed. In  the  curb  bit  the  force  exerted  by  the  pull  on  the  rein 
is  increased  in  intensity  by  the  leverage  of  the  bit,  and  the  pos- 
sibility of  inflicting  pain  is  greatly  augmented. 

The  curb  bit  consists  of  two  cheek-pieces  with  a  mouth- 
piece connecting  them  at  such  a  point  that  the  upper  branch  of 
the  cheek-piece  will  be  about  half  the  length  of  the  lower  one. 
This  ratio  is  by  no  means  fixed,  however.  The  upper  branch  is 
usually  between  one  and  a  half  and  two  inches  in  length.  The 
mouthpiece  should  be  large  in  diameter.  It  has  a  curved  central 
portion,   called^thej'port.     The  object  of  the  port  is  to  take 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  67 

pressure  off  the  tongue,  when  the  bit  is  in  use,  and  to  localize  it 
on  the  bars.  The  port,  when  the  bit  is  at  rest,  lies  on  the  tongue. 
When  the  bit  is  used,  the  port  revolves  upward  and  forward, 
away  from  the  tongue,  with  the  result  that  the  insensitive  tongue 
is  freed  from  its  influence.  At  the  upper  ends  of  the  cheek- 
pieces  are  rings  for  the  attachment  of  the  curb-chain.  This  chain 
should  be  so  adjusted  that,  when  it  is  brought  into  use,  it  will  lie 
in  a  smooth  depression  of  the  jaw-bone,  called  the  chin-groove. 


Figure  49. — The  Under  Side  of  the  Lower  Jaw-Bone. 

The  chin-groove  is  the  rounded  portion  of  the  jaw-bone 
just  forward  of  the  angle  of  the  V.  In  health,  it  is  smooth  and 
rounded,  and  admirably  fitted  to  receive  the  pressure  of  the 
curb-chain  without  injury  to  itself.  The  two  branches  of  the 
jaw-bone  are  very  thin  and  sharp  on  the  under  side,  where  they 
unite  to  form  the  chin-groove,  and  it  is,  as  will  be  seen,  highly 
important  that  the  curb-chain  should  fit  into  the  chin-groove, 
and  not  lie  on  these  sharp  bones. 

There  should  be  loops  on  the  posterior  edges  of  the  cheek- 
pieces,  half  way  from  the  rein-rings  to  the  mouthpiece,  to  attach 
the  lip-strap  to.  This  strap  is  often  necessary  to  prevent  the 
horse  from  getting  the  lower  branch  of  one  of  the  cheek-pieces 


68 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


between  his  teeth  or  lips,  and  so  defeat  the  object  of  applying 
pressure  to  the  sensitive  bars. 

The  principle  of  the  curb  bit  is  a  very  simple  one.     The 
power  is  applied  by  a  pull  on  the  reins  to  the  lower  ends  of  the 


Figure  50. 


cheek-pieces.  The  point  of  the  horse's  head  to  which  this  power 
is  transmitted  depends  upon  the  adjustment  of  the  bit  and  curb- 
chain.  If  the  curb-chain  is  too  loose,  the  bit  will  revolve  around 
the  mouthpiece  as  a  fulcrum,  and  the  cheek-pieces  of  the  bridle 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  fiO, 

will  receive  the  load  and  apply  it  to  the  poll.  This  tends  to  bring 
the  horse's  head  down.  The  curb-chain  will  lie  in  a  plane  nearly 
parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  cheek-pieces  of  the  bit,  and  but  little 
force  will  be  applied  to  the  bars  or  to  the  chin-groove.  The  bit 
will  slip  up  in  the  horse's  mouth,  and  will  be  held  either  by,the 
lips  or  by  the  molars.  Such  a  bit  is  said  to  fall  through,  as  in 
Figure  50. 

The  objection  to  having  the  curb-chain  too  loose  is  that  the 
power  of  the  bit  to  restrain  the  horse,  because  of  the  pain  it 
inflicts,  is  lost  to  the  rider. 

The  power  is  always  applied  to  the  curb  bit  at  the  lower  end 
of  the  lower  branch.  Whether  the  bit  is  a  lever  of  the  first 
or  second  order  will  depend  on  where  the  horse  feels  the 
most  pain  when  power  is  applied. 

If  the  chain  is  twisted  so  that  it  does  not  lie  smoothly  in  the 
chin-groove,  if  it  slips  up  on  the  sharp  edges  of  the  jaw-bone,  or 
if  it  pinches  the  lips,  the  curb-chain  will  hurt  the  horse  more  than 
the  mouthpiece  does,  and  the  lever  will  be  of  the  second  class. 
This  is,  of  course,  undesirable.  The  horse  will  try  to  get  away 
from  the  curb-chain  by  throwing  his  head  forward,  and  a  "  hard- 
mouthed'  '  horse  is  the  result. 

If  the  curb-chain  fits  smoothly  in  the  chin- groove,  if  it  is 
not  so  tight  as  to  pinch  the  lips  at  all  times,  or  so  loose  as  to  let 
the  bit  fall  through,  a  pull  on  the  reins  will  cause  the  mouthpiece 
to  hurt  the  bars  more  than  the  chain  hurts  the  chin-groove. 
The  fulcrum  will  then  be  at  the  upper  end  of  the  cheek-piece,the 
weight  will  be  applied  at  the  bars  by  the  mouthpiece,  and  a  lever 
of  the  second  class  results.  This  is  the  proper  adjustment  of  the 
curb-chain,  and  is  what  should  be  sought  for. 

When  the  bit  falls  through,  the  mouthpiece  is  slid  up  along 
the  bars  to  find  a  fulcrum  at  the  corners  of  the  horse's  lips  or 
against  the  molars.  It  often  happens  that  the  lips,  that  have 
wrinkled  up  by  the  sliding  upward  of  the  bit-,  are  caught  between 
the  curb-chain  and  the  mouthpiece.    The  result  is  that,  in  the 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPO  LOGY. 


Figure  51. 


effort  to  get-away  from  the  pain  caused  by  this  pinching,  the 
horse  does  not  notice  the  painless  pull  on  the  portending  to  drag 
his  head  down,  but  does  notice  the  pain  to  his  lips,  and  throws 
his  head  forward  to  avoid  it.  Thus  the  pinching  of  the  lips 
makes  the  bit  a  lever  of  the  first  class. 

When  the  curb-chain  is  too  tight,  so  that  it  slips  up  out  of 
the  chin-groove  to  Ihe  sharp  edges  of  the  branches  of  the  jaw- 
bone, the  bit  is  said  to  stand  stiff,  as  in  Figure  51. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


71 


Figure  52. 

The  horse  usually  opens  his, mouth  when  the  bit  stands  stiff 
and  sticks  his  nose  forward.  These  actions  should  at  once  tell 
the  rider  that  the  bit  is  out  of  adjustment,  and  he  should  adjust 
it.  The  correct  adjustment  is  shown  in  Figure  52.  The  chain 
fits  easily  into  the  groove,  as  the  reins  are  tightened;  the  lips  are 
not  wrinkled  or  pinched,  but  the  mouthpiece  remains  in  its  place, 


72 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


Figure  53. 
Hands  too  high,  ungraceful,  and  ineffective. 

an  inch  below  the  corners  of  the  lips.  The  bit  does  not  revolve 
so  far  as  to  waste  the  greater  part  of  the  exertions  of  the  rider  in 
a  painless  pull  on  the  head. 

In  fitting  a  horse  with  a  curb  bit,  there  is  no  better  rule  to 
follow  than  is  used  in  fitting  a  man  with  a  shoe — try  it  on.  If 
it  pinches  the  lips,  it  is  too  narrow;  if  there  is  play  enough  to 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


73 


Figure  54. 

Proper  position  of  hand  using  snaffle  bit  to  minimize  the  lifting 
effect  of  :the  bit. 

allow  the  corners  of  the  port  to  bear  on  the  bars  as  the  bit  slips 
from  side  to  side,  it  is  too  wide.  There  should  be  just  room  be- 
tween the  cheekpieces  of  the  bit  for  the  cheek-straps  of  the 
bridle,  the  curb-chain  fastenings,  and  the  horse's  muzzle,  with 
say  a  quarter  or  three-eighths  of  an  inch  added  to  prevent  chafing. 


74  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

Before  mounting  a  horse,  the  rider  should  always  examine 
the  adjustment  of  the  bit  with  as  much  care  as  he  puts  in  his 
inspection  of  the  saddle.  Whether  or  not  the  horse  will  be  com- 
fortable— and  if  he  is  not  comfortable,  the  rider  will  not  be — 
depends  largely  on  the  fit  of  his  equipments,  and,  more  than 
any  other  single  thing,  on  the  lit  of  the  bit  and  curb-chain. 

The  snaffle  bit  and  the  bar  bit  as  well,  as  we  have  seen,  tend 
to  make  the  horse  raise  his  head.  The  hands  of  the  rider,  in 
consequence,  when  using  the  snaffle,  should  be  held  as  low  as 
practicable  to  counteract  this  tendency.  Figures  53  and  54 
illustrate  this  point. 

The  low  position  of  the  hands  does  not  influence  the  action 
of  the  curb  bit,  for  the  depressing  action  of  that  bit  lies  in  the 
bit  itself,  and  the  position  of  the  hands,  within  limits,  has  no 
effect  upon  it.  The  low  position  is  much  the  more  graceful, 
however,  and,  because  the  hands  are  nearer  to  a  point  of  sup- 
port, adds  to  the  security  of  the  rider. 

The  ordinary  curb  bit  exerts  a  downward  pressure  on  the 
poll,  which  increases  as  the  curb-chain  is  loosened,  allowing  the 
upper  branch  to  revolve  further  forward  and  downward.  This 
is  objectionable,  but  as  no  bit  has  ever  been  devised  that  removes 
it  without  introducing  more  objectionable  features,  it  is  a  condi- 
dition  that  must  be  accepted  for  the  present. 

The  best  arrangement  for  guiding  and  controlling  horses  is 
the  bit  and  bridoon  in  common  use  among  good  horsemen  the 
world  over.  The  combination  is  shown  in  Figures  50,  51,  and  52. 
This  enables  the  rider  to  use  the  comfortable  snaffle  or  bar  bit 
for  the  ordinary  business  of  riding.  The  curb  remains  always  at 
hand,  out  of  the  way,  simple,  powerful,  ready  to  control  the 
horse  in  those  rare  moments,  for  the  well-trained  and  well- 
handled  horse,  when  the  snaffle  is  insufficient. 

A  Pelham  bit  is  one  that  combines,  in  a  way,  the  functions 
of  bit  and  bridoon.  There  are  many  varieties  of  Pelham  bits, 
but  the  main  object  of  them  all  is  to  do  away  with  the  second 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPO  LOGY.  75 

mouthpiece  of  the  bit  and  bridoon  by  attaching  the  bridoon  reins 
to  rings  at  the  end  of  the  mouthpiece  of  the  bit . 

There  are  thousands  of  variations  of  the  three  classes  of  bits 
described  in  this  chapter.*  In  all  these  variations  the  one  ob- 
ject sought  is  to  manufacture  a  bit  that  will  control  the  horse 
and,  at  the  same  time,  guide  him.  A  horse  is  an  animal  of  low 
intelligence;  unless  startled  or  hurt,  he  is  usually  willing  to  do 
as  he  is  bid.  When  suddenly  alarmed,  his  small  intelligence  is 
entirely  absorbed  in  how  to  escape  from  the  cause  of  his  alarm. 
In  such  a  moment  his  rider  must  have  an  instrument  that,  by 
the  pain  it  can  inflict,  will  draw  his  attention  away  from  the 
thing  that  threatens  to  the  thing  that  hurts.  As  a  creature  of 
habit,  he  has  learned  to  obey  certain  signals  in  a  set  way;  if  the 
bit,  while  inflicting  pain,  also  gives  the  signal  he  has  learned  to 
obey,  he  will  instinctively  obey  it.  Then  the  infliction  of  pain 
should  cease. 

In  selecting  a  combination  of  bit  and  bridoon,  the  bit  should 
be  powerful,  but  perfect  fitting,  and  the  bridoon  as  comfortable 
as  possible,  in  order  to  let  the  horse  know  definitely  the  differ- 
ence between  guidance  and  control.  The  guidance  should  be 
mild,  the  control  absolute. 

*One  firm  in  New  York,  dealing  in  nothing  but  bits,  sends  out  a 
catalogue  of  over  four  hundred  pages  describing  their  goods,  and 
several  bits  are  described  on  each  page* 


76  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


BITTING.* 


"I  have  nothing  to  say  about  the  snaffle,  except  that  it 
ought  to  be  rather  thick,  so  as  to  reduce  its  severity,  and  that 
it  should  be  placed  at  about  an  equal  distance  from  the  bit  and 
the  corners  of  the  mouth. 

"The  form  of  a  curb  bit  and  the  position  it  is  placed  in  the 
mouth  are  points  of  great  importance.  It  is  impossible  to  de- 
cide at  first  glance  what  kind  of  a  curb  will  suit  a  young  horse 
best  and  what  position  it  should  occupy  in  his  mouth.  Baucher 
says  that  he  would  use  the  same  kind  of  a  bit  for  all  kinds  of 
horses,  which  statement  is  the  consequence  of  his  pet  theory  that 
all  horses  have  the  same  kind  of  mouth.  I  will  1  ere  content 
myself  with  saying  that  even  the  most  inexperienced  horseman 
will  state  that  horses  go  better  in  one  bit  than  in  another,  and 
that  certain  animals  will  go  kindly  in  a  snaffle,  but  will  resent 
the  use  of  a  rather  severe  curb.  This  is  a  generally  accepted 
fact,  which  has  been  amply  proved.  We  can  find  the  best  curb 
for  a  horse  only  by  trial.  But  there  are  always  certain  princi- 
ples to  help  us  in  making  our  experiments,  which  we  may  sum 
up  as  follows : 

"The  curb  which  is  used  at  the  beginning  of  the  breaking 
should  have  a  thick  mouthpiece,  low  port,  and  short  cheek- 
pieces,  so  that  it  may  be  easy  to  the  mouth.  Its  width  should 
be  proportionate  to  that  of  the  mouth  of  the  horse.  If  it  is  too 
narrow,  the  lips  will  be  compressed  by  the  cheekpieces;  if  it  is 
too  wide,  the  horse,  either  in  play  or  to  relieve  the  bars  of  the 
mouth  from  pressure,  will  bring  it  too  much  over  on  one  side 
of  his  mouth,  so  that  a  part  of  the  port  will  rest  on  one  of 
the  bars,  and  consequently  the  mouthpiece  will  exert  an  uneven 
pressure,  which  will  almost  always  cause  the  horse  to  carry  his 
head  sideways. 

*From  "Breaking  and  Riding,"  by  James  Fillis,  pp.    10-13. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  77 

"In  order  that  the  curb  may  fit  properly,  it  should  be  wide 
enough  for  the  cheeks  to  keep  clear  of  the  lips  on  each  side.  The 
mouthpiece  should  have  an  even  feeling  on  each  side  of  the 
mouth  and  should  be  midway  between  the  tushes  and  the  corners 
of  the  lips,  and  consequently  it  will  be  lower  in  the  mouth  than 
the  snaffle,  in  the  case  of  a  double  bridle.  Later  on  I  shall  point 
out  some  exceptions  to  this  rule.  The  lower  ends  of  the  cheek- 
pieces,  yielding  to  the  pull  of  the  reins,  cause  the  upper  ends  to 
revolve  forward,  and  thus  to  produce  pressure  on  the  bars  of 
the  mouth.  The  curb-chain,  which  prevents  the  upper  ends  of 
the  cheeks  from  revolving  forward,  increases  the  pressure  on  the 
bars  proportionately  to  its  shortness.  Hence,  the  length  of  the 
curb-chain  should  be  proportionate  to  the  lightness  of  the  horse's 
mouth,  which  we  are  unable  to  estimate  in  the  crse  of  a  per- 
fectly green  horse.  With  such  an  animal,  we  shcuM  at  first 
leave  the  curb-chain  very  loose,  as  there  will  always  be  time  to 
take  it  up.  It  would  not,  on  the  contrary,  be  right  to  say  that 
there  is  always  time  to  slacken  a  tight  curb-chain,  which  causes 
pain  that  will  continue  to  be  felt  by  the  horse  after  the  curb- 
chain  has  been  let  out.  If,  however,  we  begin  with  a  loose  curb- 
chain  and  gradually  shorten  it  to  the  desired  extent,  we  shall 
avoid  hurting  the  bars  of  the  mouth  and  irritating  the  horse  to 
resistance,  and  we  gain  time.  But  if,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
work,  we  hurt  or  even  irritate  the  bars  by  undue  pressure,  we 
shall  fail  to  obtain  any  of  the  required  indications.  By  arti- 
ficially increasing  the  sensitiveness  of  the  bars,  we  fail  to  es- 
timate it  correctly,  and  work  on  a  wrong  method  from  the  be- 
ginning. The  bruising  or  even  the  mere  irritation  of  the  bars 
does  not  disappear  as  soon  as\he  work  is  finished  and  the  bridle 
taken  off,  but  continues  for  a  more  or  less  long  period.  Conse- 
quently, when  the  next  lesson  is  given,  the  bars  are  congested  and 
painful.  The  rider  will  then  be  apt  to  form  an  opinion  of  the 
effects  he  produces  on  the  mouth  of  the  horse  without  taking 
into  consideration  that  it  is  in  an  abnormal  condition,  and  he  will 


78  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

increase  the  evil  which  has  been  done,  and  he  will  become  more 
and  more  unable  to  correctly  estimate  what  is  the  natural  con- 
dition of  the  mouth.  In  a  word,  he  will  do  the  very  things  he 
ought  not  to  do.  From  the  foregoing  observations  we  can  see 
that,  at  the  beginning  of  the  breaking,  the  curb-chain  should  be 
loose — in  fact,  it  is  better  to  take  it  off. 

"The  knowledge  of  the  mouth  of  a  green  horse  is  an  im- 
portant and  delicate  matter.  In  order  to  gently  feel  the  mouth 
without  spoiling  it,  we  must  begin  with  great  lightness  of  hand, 
and  gradually  increase  the  pressure  up  to  the  point  of  making 
the  horse  feel  it,  which  sensitiveness  varies  in  degree  according 
to  the  animal.  If  a  horse  yields  to  the  light  pressure  of  a  curb 
that  has  no  curb-chain,  of  what  use  is  the  curb-chain,  and  what 
is  the  good  of  seeking  for  a  more  powerful  means  of  restraint? 

"I  have  thoroughly  broken  horses,  not  only  for  the  manege, 
but  also  for  outdoor  work,  without  using  a  cUrb-chain,  which 
may  remain  hooked  up  on  one  of  the  curb-hooks,  so  that  it  may 
be  instantly  used  in  case  of  need.  As  a  rule,  it  should  not  be 
employed  unless  the  rider  finds  that  he  needs  its  help.  When 
he  uses  it,  he  should  never  put  more  tension  on  it  than  is  actually 
required;  the  proper  maximum  being  when  the  curb-chain  is 
tightened  up  so  that  it  makes  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees 
with  the  lower  jaw. 

"As  the  tension  of  the  curb-chain  should  be  proportionate 
to  the  sensitiveness  of  the  bars,  so  should  the  pressure  caused 
by  the  pull  of  the  reins  be  proportionate  to  the  resistance.  If 
this  resistance  is  slight,  the  effort  to  overcome  it  should  be  light, 
and  the  point  of  its  application  should  be  high  up  on  the  jaw;  if 
the  resistance  is  great,  the  effort  should  be  energetic  and  it 
should  be  applied  low  down.  Therefore,  without  greatly  alter- 
ing the  middle  position  which  the  mouthpiece  should  occupy  be- 
tween the  tushes  and  the  corners  of  the  lips,  we  may  raise  or 
lower  the  mouthpiece  so  that  the  horse  may  yield  his  jaw  by, 
respectively,  a  light  feeling  of  the  reins  or  by  a  strong  pull  on 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  79 

them.  In  other  words,  the  softer  the  mouth  is,  the  higher  should 
be  the  mouthpiece;  and  the  harder,  the  lower  should  it  be  placed. 
In  no  case,  however,  should  it  press  on  or  even  touch  the  corners 
of  the  lips  or  the  tushes. 

"We  learn  from  the  foregoing  remarks  that  the  proper  ten- 
sion of  the  curb-chain  and  the  right  position  of  the  mouthpiece 
in  the  mouth  of  the  young  horse  can  be  found  only  from  ex- 
perience, which  should  be  gained  from  very  slight  effects  thaq. 
can  be  gradually  increased  in  severity  as  the  case  may  demand." 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


81 


CHAPTER   VI. 


UPPER   PASTERN 
JOI  NT 


THE  FRONT  LEG. 

Beginning  at  the  top,  the  bones  of  the  front  leg  are  named 
as    follows:     shoulder-blade    (scapula),    arm-bone  (humerus), 

forearm-bone*  (radius),  the 
bones  of  the  knee,  cannon- 
bone  (Figure  55),  the  splint- 
bones,  of  which  there  are 
two,  one  each  side  of  the 
cannon-bone  (A,  Figure  59), 
the  sesamoids,  upper  and 
lower  pastern-bones,  navic- 
ular-bone,  and  coffin-bone 
(Figure  56). 

The  joints  are  the  shoul- 
der-joint, the  elbow-joint, 
the  knee,  the  fetlock-joint, 
the  lower  pastern-joint,  and 
the  navicular-joint. 

The  external  nomencla- 
ture of  this  region  is  shown 
in  Figure  57. 

The  shoulder-blade,  which 
has  no  bony  connection — no 
articulation — with  the  trunk,  is  bound  to  it  by  muscles  alone. 
The  horse  has  no  collar-bone.     Below,  it  articulates  with  the 


LOWER  PASTER! 
JOINT 


NAVICULAR   BONE 


COFFIN      BONE 


Figure  56. — Nomenclature  of 
the  Bones  of  the  Foot. 


*The  ulna,  the  upper  portion  of  the  f orearm-bone,  reaching  from 
just  below  the  elbow-joint  to  the  point  of  the  elbow,  a  separate  bone 
in  the  co.t,  becomes  completely  united  to  the  forearm-bone  in  the 
adult  horse. 


82 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPO  LOGY. 


arm-bone  at  the  shoulder-joint.  Unlike  the  other  joints  in  the 
horse's  anatomy,  these  two  bones  are  not  bound  together  by 
numerous  ligaments,  but  by  one  very  strong  enveloping  ligament, 


HOOF 


Figure  57. — External  Nomenclature  of  Front  Leg. 

which  permits  great  freedom  of  extension  and  flexion,  and  some 
side-play.  It  is  a  very  strong  joint,  and  is  not  liable  to  sprain, 
except  from  external  causes.     In  almost  every  case  of  obscure 


ELEMENT 8    OF    HIPPoi^uGY.  83 

lameness  in  front,  the  trouble  lies  below  the  shoulder-joint.  The 
point  of  the  shoulder  marks  the  position  of  the  shoulder-joint. 
The  shoulder-blade  should  slope  well  forward,  towards  the  point 
of  the  shoulder,  in  order  to  insure  a  comfortable  seat  for  the  rider. 
The  arm-bone  articulates  with  the  forearm-bone  at  the  elbow- 
joint.  This  joint  is  a  little  below  the  upper  end  of  the  leg-bone, 
and  the  projection  of  the  bone,  above  the  joint,  is  called  the 
elbow.  In  order  that  the  horse  shall  be  " handy"  in  front,  or 
have  a  free  action,  the  elbow  should  have  considerable  lateral 
motion.  The  absence  of  this  condition  is  termed  tied  down 
to  the  chest. 

Sprains  in  the  elbow-joint  are  very  rare.  All  bones  are 
covered  with  membranes  that  secrete  either  bony  tissue  or  fluids 
needful  to  keep  the  bones  properly  moist.  At  the  elbow  and 
hock,  these  membranes  are  not  covered  by  muscles,  but  directly 
by  the  skin.  Inflammation,  resulting  from  a  blow  to  these  un- 
protected parts,  is  not  manifested  in  the  usual  way,  but  by  an 
increased  secretion  of  fluid,  accompanied  by  a  thickening  of  the 
skin  and  membranes  over  the  injured  part.  This  fluid  is  the 
same  that  is  found  in  the  familiar  water-blister.  When  the  elbow 
is  injured,  the  resulting  "blister"  is  termed  a  capped  elbow 
(Figure  58).  This  trouble  is  found  most  frequently  in  horses 
carelessly  or  ignorantly  shod,  and  stabled  on  brick,  concrete,  or 
granite  block  floors,  and  is  due  to  the  shoe,  or  the  floor,  striking 
the  elbow  when  the  horse  lies  down.  It  is  sometimes  called  a 
shoe-boil,  and,  while  easily  removed,  if  taken  in  time,s  till  its 
presence  argues  some  weakness  in  the  foreleg  that  prevents  the 
horse  from  easing  down  properly  in  the  act  of  lying  down;  he 
brings  his  elbow  to  the  ground  with  more  force  than  a  perfectly 
sound  horse  of  good  conformation  should  do. 

Between  the  leg-bone  and  the  cannon-bone  is  a  group  of 
small  bones,  six  in  front,  called  carpals,  and  one,  larger,  in  rear, 
called  the  trapezium  (Figure  59).  The  joint  formed  by  these 
bones  is  called  the  knee.     It  is  a  hinge  in  the  continuity  of  leg- 


84 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


bone  and  cannon-bone,  whose  function  is  to  enable'  the  foot  to 
be  brought  forward  without  striking  the  toe  on  the  ground,  and, 
by  the  elasticity  of  its  cartilages,  to  reduce  the  shock  of  impact 
of  the  foot  with  the  ground. 

The  trapezium 
is  a  bone  placed 
at  the  back  of 
the  knee  to  af- 
ford a  lever-like 
attachment  for 
the  tendons  that 
bend  the  knee. 
The  carpal-bones 
are  arranged  in 
two  layers,  three 
in  a  layer.  The 
upper  three  ar- 
ticulate, with 
thick  cartilages 
between,  with 
the  leg- bone. 
The  lower  three 
carpals  rest  on 
the  metacar- 
pals, of  which 
there  are  three. 
One,  the  great 
metacarpal,  or 
cannon  -bone, 
continues  the 
bony  column  to- 
wards the  foot.  The  other  two,  on  either  side  of  the  cannon- 
bone,  are  rudimentary,  and  are  called  splint  bones  (Figure  59  A). 


Figure  58. — Capped  Elbow. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


85 


When  viewed  from  the  front  or  side,  the  knee  should  be 
broad;  wedge-shaped,  when  viewed  from  the  rear. 

The  leg  below  the  knee 
should  not  become  rapid 
ly  smaller,  but  should  ta- 
per gradually  towards 
the  upper  pastern-joint. 
When  it  is  decidedly 
smaller  just  below  the 
knee,  the  horse  is  said 
to  be  tied  in  below  the 
knee. 

Horses  that  are  knee- 
tied  usually  owe  that  de- 
fect to  a  small  trapezium. 
This  makes  them  defici- 
ent in  power  where  it  is 
very  necessary. 

Any  wound  or  injury 
to  the  knee  caused  by  a 
horse  falling  on  his  knees 
is  called  a  broken  knee, 
whether  +he  skin  is  merely 
broken,  or  the  bones  shat- 
tered (Figure  60).  It  is 
as  living  motive-power 
that  a  horse  is  valuable. 

Anything     that     brings 
To  illustrate  the  position  of  the  splint-  -     „„__+-   _  +i  _  „rti-   u-i:+,T 
bone.  A,  with  reference  to  the  bones  of  the  m  question  the  reliability 
knee,  the  cannon-bone,  B,  and  the  tendons  of    the    columns   through 
of  thef00t-  which  this  power  is  ex- 

erted— his  legs — or  the  pilot  that  governs  the  direction  of  its 
application — his  sight — is  of  the  highest  importance  to  investi- 
gate.    For  that  reason  it  is  important  to  know  whether  or  not 


Figure  59. 


86 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


a  horse  is  sure  on  his  front  feet.  Broken  knees  are  a  sign  of  a 
failure  at  some  time  in  his  history ;  hence  a  most  careful  scrutiny 
of  the  front  faces  of  his  knees  should  be  made. 

It  often  happens  that  a  horse  falls  and  bruises  his  knee  in  a 
perfectly  innocent  way,  but  such  happenings  are  rare.  As  a 
rule,  the  fall  is  due 
to  some  defect  in 
the  horse  himself. 
The  would-be  pur- 
chaser is  wise  who 
rejects  finally  any 
horse  with  broken 
knees. 

The  back  tend- 
ons, leading  from 
the  trapezium  t  o 
the  pastern,  when 
strained,  are  causes 
of  lameness.  This 
strain  occurs  more 
often  in  saddle 
horses  that  are  gal- 
loped when  tired. 
It  is  noticeable  by 
an  enlargement  of 
the  tendon,  or  its 
sheath,  below  the 
knee,  usually  nearer 
the  knee  than  the 
pastern,  and  a  tendency  to  keep  the  knees  bent  forward  when 
at  rest,  to  ease  the  strain  on  those  tendons. 

A  tendon  is  a  dense,  fibrous  tissue  that  connects  a  muscle 
with  a  bone.  Its  function  is  to  transmit  the  energy  developed 
by  the  contraction  of  the  muscle  to  the  bone. 


Figure  60. — -Broken  Knees. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  87 

A  ligament  is  also  a  dense,  fibrous  tissue,  and  serves  to  bind 
two  bones,  usually,  together.  Tendons  are  usually  of  the  shape 
of  ropes,  and  do  their  work,  while  ligaments  are  of  a  variety  of 
shapes.  The  ligament  that  binds  the  shoulder-blade  to  the  arm- 
bone,  at  the  shoulder- joint  is  like  a  broad,  enveloping  bandage. 
The  ligaments  joining  the  head  and  withers  of  a  horse  and  sup- 
porting the  vertebrae  of  the  neck  resemble  closely  the  cable  and 
supporting  rods  of  a  suspension-bridge.  The  bones  of  the  knee 
and  the  hock  are  held  in  place  by  numerous  ligaments  of  a  variety 
of  shapes,  while  the  ligament  that  supports  the  contents  of  the 
abdomen,  hung  between  the  ribs,  the  hips,  and  the  under  side  of 
the  pelvis,  is  shaped  like  a  hammock. 

A  cartilage  is  a  dense,  highly  elastic  substance  that  envelops 
'the  ends  of  bones  at  joints. 

There  is  no  room  for  muscles  between  the  knee,  or  the  hock, 
and  the  ground.  The  space  between  the  skin  and  the  bones  is 
filled  with  tendons,  reaching  from  the  muscles  of  the  shoulder 
and  arm  to  their  attachments  on  the  cannon-bone,  pastern,  and 
foot,  with  ligaments  binding  the  bones  together,  the  sheaths  of 
these  tendons  and  ligaments  and  the  nerves,  blood  and  other 
vessels  supplying  the  lower  leg  and  foot.  .  All  these  tissues  are 
compact,  lying  closely  together.  They  should  be  cool  to  the 
touch,  smooth  and  firm.  Any  puffiness,  any  undue  heat,  any 
sensitiveness  or  roughness  are  sure  signs  of  disease. 

Often  when  a  horse  is  idle  and  is  over-fed,  his  legs  will  swell 
and  will  become  feverish  and  painful.  The  animal  will  move  in 
a  stilty,  stiff  way.  This  lameness  will  disappear  with  proper 
feeding  and  exercise,  and  it  should  not  be  confused  with  the 
lameness  resulting  from  ligaments  or  tendons  strained  from 
overwork. 

In  the  young  horse  the  three  metacarpals  are  separateb  ones. 
Due  to  injury,  or  conformation,  or  improper  shoeing,  or  over- 
work, these  bones  throw  out  bony  deposits  that  graduallyu  nite 
them,  jjn  the  aged  horse  this  union  is  a  normal  condition,  and, 


88  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

if  the  bony  tumor  marking  the  union  is  not  so  high  as  to  inter- 
fere with  the  action  of  the  carpals,  or  far  enough  back  to  inter- 
fere with  the  action  of  the  tendons  and  the  suspensory  ligaments, 
no  harm  results.     This  is  the  simple  splint  (Figure  61). 

A  beaded  splint  is  a  series  of  two  or  more  such  enlargements, 
running  down  the  splint-bone. 

If  the  bony  deposit  spreads  to  the  back  of  the  cannon-bone 
and  across  it  to  the  splint-bone  on  the  other  side,  it  is  called  a 
pegged  splint.  This  is  its  worst  form,  is  incurable,  and  results 
in  chronic  lameness. 

If  the  bony  growth  encroaches  upon  the  carpals,  or  inter- 
feres with  the  tendons  or  ligaments,  serious  lameness,  usually 
incurable,  results. 

In  Figure  59  the  position  of  the  splint-bone,  A,  with  respect 
to  the  knee-bones,  the  tendons  in  rear,  and  the  cannon-bone, 
B,  is  clearly  shown.  The  tendons,  when  the  horse  is  in  motion, 
are  in  constant  motion  up  and  down.  They  are  immensely 
strong,  inelastic  tissues,  covered  with  delicate  membranes  that 
supply  the  lubricants  necessary  to  permit  them  to  slip  easily 
and  freely. 

Any  bony  growth  on  the  rear  of  the  splint-bonew  ill  inter- 
fere with  this  ease  of  movement,  and  the  roughness  of  the  bony 
tumors  will  lacerate  and  inflame  the  sheaths  of  the  tendons. 

If  the  bony  tumor  encroaches  on  the  knee-bones,  it  is  seen 
easily  that  much  damage  will  result. 

If,  however,  the  union  between  the  bones  A  and  B  is  effected 
by  a  growth  between  the  bones  and  to  the  front,  there  is  no 
moving  tissue  that  is  interfered  with,and  lameness  will  not  result. 

The  extremely  large  splint  shown  in  Figure  61  has  appar- 
ently not  inconvenienced  the  horse  in  the  least. 

A  wound  on  the  upper  end  of  the  inside  splint  at  A,  Figure 
59,  caused  by  the  shoe  of  the  other  front  foot  striking  it  at  high 
gaits,  is  called  speedy  cut.  This  is  a  very  serious  defect.  The 
interference  that  causes  it  happens  only  at  high  speed;  the  pain 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPO  LOGY. 


resulting  is  very  great,  sufficient  often  to  bring  the  animal  to  his 
knees,  and  to  cause  deplorable  accidents. 

The  line  of  the  foreleg  should  be  nearly  straight,  the  cannon- 
bone  prolonging  the  radius.     If  this  line  bends  forward,  the 

horse  stands  over 
at  the  knees;  if  it 
bends  back,  he  is 
calf-kneed.  The 
former  is  a  sign  of 
muscular  deficiency 
—lack  of  power. 
A  calf-kneed  horse, 
if  put  to  hard  work, 
is  apt  to  strain  the 
tendons  or  liga- 
ments. 

The  fetlock 
should  be  small — 
not  as  broad  as  the 
knee  when  viewed 
from  the  front,  nor 
any  broader  when 
taken  in  profile — 
it  should  be  flat 
from  side  to  side. 

The   skin   should 
be   closely  drawn 
without     puffiness, 
and  the  joint  should 
Figure  61.— Simple  Splint.  be  clean  cut. 

Wind-galls,  due 
to  enlargement  of  the  membrane  secreting  the  lubricant  for  the 
joint,  and  containing  it,  and  caused  by  violent  exertion  or 
overwork  (Figure  63)  are  often  found  at  the  fetlock  and  ankle. 


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ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


91 


If  they  are  soft  to  the  pressure  of  the  finger,  and  cool,  they  are 
little  more  than  blemishes;  if  they  are  soft  and  hot,  indicating 
inflammation,  they  are  the  result  of  a  strain  to  one  of  the  ten- 
dons; if  hard  and  inflamed,  they  result  from  some  injury  to  the 

bone  or  its 
covering  . 
Both  of  these 
two  latter  con- 
ditions a  r  e 
serious  and 
demand  a  t  - 
tent  ion. 

Under  the 
back  part  of 
the  fetlock  is  a 
horny  growth, 
called  the 
ergot.  It 
seems,  like 
the  other  hor- 
growth 
up  on 
the  inside  of 
the  radius, 
called  the 
chestnut 
(Figure  7  2 ), 
to  be  of  no 
functional  val- 
ue. Any  bony 
deposit  upon 
the  pastern 
bones  is  termed  a  ringbone.  If  the  deposit  is  above  the  joint 
between  the  two  pastern-bones,  it  is  a  high  ringbone.    This 


ny 
higher 


Figure  63. — Wind-Galls. 


92 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


is  its  most  common  form,  and  is  easily  detected.  If  the  ring- 
bone is  confined  to  the  side  of  the  joint,  it  is  less  serious  than  if 
it  extends  to  the  back  or  front  of  the  joint,  when  an  incurable 
lameness  results.  Most  serious  of  all  is  the  low  ringbone,  which 
involves  the  joints  between  the  lower  pastern-bone  and  its  neigh- 
bors. This  is  difficult  for  the  amateur  to  detect,  as  it  is  gen- 
erally contained  within  the  hoof . 

Sidebones  are 
bony  enlargements 
in  the  heels,  show- 
ing just  above  the 
hoof. 

The  pastern 
should  slope  well 
from  the  rear  to 
the  front,  and 
should  be  very  elas- 
tic in  action.  Too 
great  a  slope  causes 
undue  tension  on 
the  tendons  and 
ligaments.  About 
forty-five  degrees 
of  slope  is  best. 
More  slope  than 
that  would  indicate 
weakness  i  n  this 
part.  The  slope  of 
the  pastern  is  de- 
termined by  the  length  of  the  upper  pastern-bone; — the  longer 
the  bone,  the  greater  the  slope,  and  the  reverse.  A  short,  up- 
right pastern  is  an  almost  invariable  sign  of  a.  rough  saddle- 
horse. 


Figure  64 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  93 

The  principal  function  of  the  foreleg  is  to  support  weight, 
to  carry  the  forehand  and  its  load  ahead  and  out  of  the  way  of 
the  propelling  haunches.  It  must  be  so  shaped  that  it  can  per- 
form this  work  without  injury  to  itself  and  carry  its  load  as 
nearly  level  as  possible. 

Elasticity  in  carrying  its  load  is  secured  through  the  car- 
tilages and  muscles.  The  shock  of  impact  is  transmitted  at  each 
joint,  partly  to  the  bone  above  the  joint  and  partly  to  the 
muscles  controlling  the  bone  below  it,  through  the  tendons  con- 
necting them.  The  smaller  the  angle  between  two  adjoining- 
bones,  the  greater  will  be  the  portion  of  the  shock  transmitted 
to  the  muscles.  In  the  foreleg,  three  joints  are  between  bones 
inclining  more  or  less  to  each  other — the  fetlock-joint,  the  elbow, 
and  the  shoulder-joint.  If  the  upper  pastern-bone  is  long,  it 
will  slope  well  from  the  cannon  to  the  hoof;  if  it  is  short,  it  will 
stand  straight.  Similarly,  a  short  arm-bone  will  bring  the  point 
of  the  shoulder  nearer  the  elbow  and  straighten  the  shoulder- 
blade. 

The  foreleg  of  the  camel  is  straight  from  the  foot  to  the 
upper  end  of  the  shoulder-blade.  Consequently,  the  shock  of 
impact  is  carried  to  the  shoulder  muscles,  lessened  only  by  the 
elasticity  of  the  cartilages  between  the  bones.  As  a  result,  the 
camel  is  the  most  uncomfortable  saddle-animal  known. 

The  slope  of  the  shoulder  should  be  about  forty-five  degrees 
and  that  of  the  pastern  about  the  same.  The  horse  shown  in  the 
half-tone  on  the  following  page  may  be  taken  as  a  model  of  con- 
formation. His  shoulder-blade  slopes  at  the  proper  angle,  and 
is  very  long.  His  forearm  is  very  long,  sand  strongly  muscled. 
His  elbow,  knee,  and  pastern  are  smooth,  clean-cut  joints.  The 
cannon  is  short  and  prolongs  the  forearm. 

A  straight  shoulder  and  a  straight,  short  pastern  should  be 
avoided.  The  horse  will  not  only  be  uncomfortable  to  ride,  but 
he  will  "  pound' '  himself  at  the  faster  gaits  and  become  lame  from 
the  concussion. 


94 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


Splints,  sprained  tendons  and  ligaments,  ringbones,  side- 
bones,  wind-galls,  and  most  of  the  diseases  of  the  feet  are  due  to 
this  concussion. 


Figure  65. — A  Model  op  Conformation. 
From  the  painting  by  Otto  Eerelman. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  97 


CHAPTER    VII. 


THE  BACK. 

The  back  is  mainly  of  interest  because  it  furnishes  the  posi- 
tion of  the  saddle,  and  it  is  necessary  to  know  something  of  its 
anatomy  to  be  able  to  place  the  saddle  and  its  load  so  they  will 
not  injure  it. 

The  bones  of  the  back  are  eighteen  vertebrae  of  the  spinal 
column,  and  the  ribs.  The  first  eight  of  these  vertebrae,  with 
their  muscular  coverings,  are  called,  taken  collectively,  the 
withers  The  upper  spines  of  six  or  seven,  usually,  of  these 
bones  are  much  longer,  as  can  be  seen  in  Figure  67,  than  on  any 
of  the  others,  and  they  furnish  points  of  attachment  for  the  sus- 
pensory ligament  of  the  neck  and  for  several  important  muscles 
of  the  back,  shoulder,  and  ribs. 

In  front  of  the  haunch-bone  are  six  vertebrae,  called  the 
lumbar  vertebrae ;  they  slope  towards  the  front.  All  the  verte- 
brae of  the  back  are  well  padded  with  muscles  on  the  sides,  but 
are  very  close  to  the  skin  on  top,  and  these  upper  extremities 
must  be  very  carefully  protected  from  any  pressure. 

Looking  at  Figure  66,  the  muscles  of  the  back  are  seen  to  be 
broad  and  long.  These  muscles  have  slight  motions;  they  are 
several  inches  thick,  and  are  admirably  adapted  to  receive  the 
saddle  and  its  load,  provided  the  load  is  kept  off  the  spinal 
column  and  is  evenly  distributed. 

On  each  side  of  the  withers,  a  little  lower  than  their  crest, 
lie  the  upper  ends  of  the  shoulder-blades.  These  bones  are 
tipped  with  a  broad,  thick  band  of  cartilage — indicated  in  Figure 
67 — to  protect  the  bone  itself  from  injury.' 


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ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  99 

The  shoulder-blade,  as  has  been  said,  has  no  bony  union 
with  the  spinal  column.  It  is  simply  bound  on  the  ribs  and 
spinal  column  by  a  number  of  very  strong  muscles  that  control 
its  movements.  The  center  of  its  motion  is  about  one-third  its 
length  from  the  upper  end.  When  the  foot  is  brought  forward, 
the  lower  end  of  the  shoulder-blade  swings  forward  and  upward, 
around  this  center  of  motion,'  and  the  upper  end  swings  back- 
ward and  downward. 

The  saddle  must  be  so  placed  as  not  to  interfere  with  the 
free  play  of  this  bone.  It  has  been  found  that  if  the  front  of  the 
side-bar  of  the  McClellan  saddle  is  placed  so  that  three  fingers 
can  be  laid  between  it  and  the  shoulder-blade  when  the  horse  is 
standing,  the  play  of  the  bone  will  not  be  interfered  with. 

The  saddle  in  ordinary  use  for  pleasure-riding  does  not  need 
to  be  built  to  carry  any  load  but  the  rider.  It  has  a  very  small, 
rigid  frame,  called  the  tree,  is  carefully  and  thoroughly  pad- 
ded, and  needs  no  blanket  or  pad  under  it  to  protect  the  horse's 
back.  A  leather  sweat-pad,  called  the  numnah,  should  be  used 
under  it  to  protect  its  padding  from  becoming  ruined  by  sweat, 

These  saddles  should  be  padded  to  fit  each  particular  horse, 
and  should  not  be  used  on  another  horse.  If  this  precaution  is 
taken,  the  saddle  will  naturally  fall  on  its  proper  place  and  will 
stay  there.  As  long  as  the  padding  is  good  and  the  numnah 
kept  clean,  there  is  small  danger  of  injury  being  done  to  the 
horse's  back. 

The  McClellan  saddle,  however,  must  often  be  changed  from 
one  horse  to  another.  Its  tree  is  larger  and  its  bearing  surface 
considerable  to  provide  points  of  attachment  for  the  packs  that, 
from  time  to  time,  must  be  fastened  to  the  pommel  and  cantle. 
The  horse's  back  is  protected  by  a  folded  woolen  blanket. 

This  blanket  must  be  folded  very  carefully;  no  wrinkles 
should  be  allowed,  nor  any  dirt  or  other  foreign  substances,  in  any 
of  its  folds.  Anything  that  causes  undue  pressure  on  any  spot 
under  the  saddle  will  compress  the  capillaries  of  that  spot  and 


100  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

prevent  it  from  receiving  the  supply  of  blood  necessary  to  keep 
it  built  up.  If  this  pressure  is  sufficient  to  chafe  the  skin,  the 
resulting  wound  is  very  liable  to  become  infected,  as  the  woolen 
blanket,  impregnated  with  sweat,  is  a  favorable  place  for  the 
growth  of  microbes.  If  the  skin  is  not  broken,  when  the  pressure 
is  removed  the  spot  affected  will  immediately  become  inflamed, 
and  a  sore  will  probably  result,  under  the  skin,  that  will,  unless 
taken  properly  in  hand,  finally  destroy  the  skin  over  it,  and  be- 
come an  open  sore.  In  either  case  the  horse  is  said  to  have,  first, 
a  saddle-gall ;  then,  if  this  is  neglected,  it  becomes  a  sore  back. 
If  this  sore  back  is  along  the  ridge  of  the  back-bone,  the  pus 
cannot  easily  be  drained;  it  may  make  sinuses  along  the  spines 
of  the  vertebrae,  and  a  fistula  results. 

Another  serious  result  of  a  neglected  sore  back  comes  when 
the  sore  practically  heals.  Active  suppuration  has  then  ceased, 
and  the  wound  heals  over  imperfectly,  leaving  a  dead,  hard 
piece  of  skin  over  the  sore,  itself  covered  by  a  thick  scab.  An 
inert  abscess  is  left  under  the  skin,  which  breaks  out  when  pressure 
is  again  applied  to  it.  This  is  a  sitfast,  an  obstinate,  trouble- 
some sore,  that  needs  constant  watching. 

If  there  is  time  to  devote  to  it,  the  sitfast  should  be  cut  out 
and  the  wound  compelled  to  heal  slowly,  filling  up  from  the 
bottom  with  sound  tissue. 

When  the  saddle  is  first  removed,  the  horse's  back  should 
be  carefully  looked  over.  If  any  chafed  places  or  inflamed  spots 
are  noticed  they  should  be  washed  clean  and  briskly  rubbed  for 
fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  to  restore  a  healthy  circulation.  Fo- 
menting the  back  with  warm  water,  carefully  drying  it  before 
leaving  it,  is  also  an  excellent  treatment.  The  under  side  of  the 
blanket  should  be  inspected,  to  locate  the  cause  of  the  trouble, 
and  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken,  when  the  horse  is  next 
saddled,  to  keep  all  pressure  from  the  sore  spot.  This  can  be 
affected  by  cutting  a  hole  in  the  blanket  over  the  sore,  saddling 
carefully,  and  adjusting  the  blanket  at  every  halt. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  101 

A  saddle-horse  should  have  a  flat  back,  moderately  high 
withers,  not  too  thick,  and  a  sloping  shoulder.  Figure  65  shows 
an  excellent  back.  The  shoulder  is  especially  good.  A  long, 
sloping  shoulder,  reaching  out  well  in  front  of  the  rider,  gives 
him  a  feeling  of  security  that  he  cannot  have  if  the  shoulder 
ends  near  his  own  knee. 

The  muscles  that  pull  the  shoulder-blade  forward  are  at- 
tached to  the  poll  and  upper  four  neck  vertebra?;  the  ones  that 
draw  it  back  are  attached  to  the  dorsal  and  lumbar  vertebrae 
and  the  first  eight  ribs.  This  explains  why  a  horse  that  is  down 
can  be  kept  down  by  raising  his  head  and  bending  it  back  to- 
wards his  shoulder.  The  neck  muscles  that  move  the  shoulder- 
blade  forward — and  hence  the  whole  leg — are  incapable  of  acting. 
If  a  horse  cannot  move  his  foreleg  forward  when  he  is  down,  to 
get  a  bearing,  he  cannot  rise. 

High  withers,  extending  well  back,  are  generally  associated 
with  long  necks,  long  and  sloping  shoulder-blades,  and  powerful 
back  muscles.  Low  withers  are  generally  found  on  animals 
with  short  necks  and  straight  shoulder-blades.  The  withers 
should  not  be  too  fleshy  and  thick. 

The  two  horses  shown  in  Figures  69  and  70  have  each  very 
prominent  withers.  The  one  in  Figure  69  has  very  thin  withers, 
and  his  back  slopes  too  much  from  the  croup.  The  result  is  that 
the  saddle  could  not  be  kept  from  chafing  the  top  of  his  withers, 
which  were  always  sore  after  a  ride.  He  was,  in  consequence, 
not  for  duty  most  of  the  time,  and  had  to  be  sold  as  unfit  for 
saddle  purposes. 

While  he  was  a  coarse,  ill-looking  animal,  still  he  was  very 
strong,  active,  and  comfortable  to  ride,  and,  aside  from  his  sore 
withers,  perfectly  sound  when  sold.  But  for  that  defect  he 
would  have  given  many  years  of  useful  service.. 

The  horse  shown  in  Figure  70  is  a  useful  specimen  of  what  is 
termed  the  general-purpose  horse;  he  is  equally  good  to  ride  or 
to  drive.     He  has  a  strong  strain  of  the  American  saddle-horse 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


103 


Figure  70. — A  Useful  Specimen. 


with  a  thoroughbred  cross.  He  is  a  fine  saddler,  drives  well, 
single  or  double,  is  not  dainty  with  his  food,  and  thrives  well  in 
the  field.  He  has  been  ridden  by  an  officer  for  ten  years,  and  is 
as  good  as  ever. 

His  withers  are  as  high  as  those  of  the  horse  in  Figure  69, 
but  not  so  thin,  and  his  barrel  is  longer  and  more  cylindrical. 
The  saddle,  if  placed  off  the  withers  on  saddling,  will  stay  there 
with  very  little  watching.  He  is  not  shown  as  a  perfect  model, 
but  as  an  example  of  an  extremely  useful  individual,  in  spite  of 
what  might  seem  serious  defects  in  conformation. 


104 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


Figure  71. — Nearly  Everything  Wrong. 


The  horse  shown  in  Figure  71  has  been  several  years  at  the 
Military  Academy.  His  withers  are  much  too  thin  and  prom- 
inent, but  are  kept  from  ever  getting  sore,  because  it  is  impos- 
sible to  keep  the  saddle  in  its  position  long  enough  to  chafe  them, 
unless  intentionally  fastened  there  with  a  too  tight  breast-strap; 
even  then  his  shoulder  is  so  straight  that  it  has  but  little  play. 
He  is  rough  to  ride,  ungainly,  and  has  no  staying  power.  He 
can  hardly  be  said  to  have  a  single  redeeming  trait. 


106  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 


THE  TRUNK. 

If  the  legs  and  neck  were  removed  from  the  horse's  body,  the 
trunk  would  remain.  It  is  subdivided  into  the  breast,  the  chest 
with  its  enclosing  ribs,  the  back  and  loins,  the  abdomen — the 
cavity  in  the  rear  part  of  the  trunk— and  its  contents,  the  hips, 
and  the  croup. 

The  breast  is  the  muscular  front  portion  of  the  chest,  and  is 
bounded  by  a  line  connecting  the  points  of  both  shoulders  and 
by  the  arm-bone  on  each  side.  For  saddle  purposes,  great  width 
of  breast  is  usually  at  the  expense  of  leaping  power  and  speed, 
since  this  width  is  usually  produced  by  over-development  of  the 
shoulder  muscles,  and  not  because  of  increased  capacity  of 
the  chest. 

The  lungs  and  heart  are  enclosed,  by  the  ribs  and  dia- 
phragm, in  the  chest.  It  is  by  the  expansion  of  the  chest  that 
air  is  brought  into  the  lungs,  and  by  its  contraction  that  air  is 
expelled.  This  expansion  and  contraction  is  performed  by  the 
muscles  of  the  ribs.  The  greater  the  expansive  power  of  the 
chest,  the  greater  quantity  of  air  will  be  drawn  into  the  lungs, 
and  the  purifying  and  vitalizing  of  the  blood  will  be  more  com- 
pletely performed.  The  ribs  should,  therefore,  be  long,  convex, 
and  slope  to  the  rear.  A  horse  whose  ribs  approach  close  to 
the  haunch-bone  is  said  to  be  well  ribbed  up. 

The  cavity  of  the  chest  is  separated  from  the  abdomen  by  a 
muscular  partition,  called  the  diaphragm.  The  entire  cavity 
of  the  chest  is  lined  by  a  very  smooth,  well-lubricated  membrane, 
called  the  pleura,  which  envelopes,  without  attaching  itself  to, 
the  heart  and  lungs.    The  abdomen  contains  the  stomach,  the 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  107 

intestines,  the  kidneys,  and  the  various  glands  whose  secretions 
assist  in  the  processes  of  digestion. 

It  is  by  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  chest  that  the 
lungs  perform  their  function  of  purifying  and  oxidizing  the  blood. 
The  lungs  cannot  be  too  big.  The  chest,  to  contain  large  lungs, 
should  be  deep,  from  top  to  bottom,  long  from  front  to  rear, 
and  have  great  convexity. 

The  abdomen  must  also  be  roomy,  but  only  to  a  certain 
extent.  If  the  abdomen  is  small — "  tucked  up,"  as  it  is  called — 
there  will  be  little  room  for  food  to  be  stored,  the  horse  will  be  a 
dainty  eater,  requiring  frequent  feeding,  and  he  will  be  unfit 
for  hard  service.  If  his  abdomen  is  too  large,  its  excessive  weight 
will  prevent  the  horse  from  being  active  or  fast,  and  he  will  be 
clumsy  and  unpleasant  to  ride.  A  horse  possessing  the  first 
fault  is  said  to  be  herring-gutted,  and  the  last  mentioned, 
pot-bellied. 

The  saddle  on  the  pot-bellied  horse  is  constantly  slipping 
forward  to  bruise  the  withers  or  the  shoulders.  On  the  herring- 
gutted  horse  it  keeps  sliding  back,  to  the  annoyance  of  the  rider. 

The  contents  of  the  abdomen  are  held  in  place  by  the  ab- 
dominal tunic,  a  very  powerful  ligament,  and  by  other  tendons 
and  muscles.  This  abdominal  envelope  should  continue  the 
lines  of  the  ribs.  The  profile  of  the  belly  should  slope  gently 
downward  from  the  sheath  to  the  girth-place. 

The  loins  include  the  six  lumbar  vertebrae  and  their  mus- 
cular covering.  The  region  of  the  loins  is  commonly  known  as 
the  coupling. 

If  the  ribs  slope  to  the  rear  well,  and  the  loin  muscles  are 
thick  and  strong,  the  horse  is  well  coupled.  For  saddle-horses, 
the  coupling  should  be  short  and  the  muscles  strong  and  thick. 

The  curve  of  the  profile  of  the  horse's  back — from  withers 
to  tail — should  be,  when  viewed  from  the  side,  smooth  and  flat- 
tened (Figure  70).  There  should  be  no  "jog"  (Figure  71)  in 
front  of  the  haunch-bone  in  horses  in  good  condition.     Most 


108  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

horses  in  low  condition  show  a  slight  interruption  in  the  curve 
of  the  back  at  this  point,  due  to  the  wasting  away  of  the  muscles 
filling  in  the  angle  between  the  last  vertebra  of  the  loins  and  the 
first  of  those  of  the  croup. 

The  hips  should  be  well  rounded  and  not  too  prominent.  A 
horse  with  too  prominent,  ragged  hips  is  apt  to  strike  and  break 
them  when  going  through  narrow  gates  or  doorways.  When 
the  point  of  the  hip  is  broken,  it  is  easily  seen  by  the  lack  of 
symmetry,  when  viewed  from  the  rear.  The  usefulness  of  the 
animal  is  not  always  impaired  by  such  an  accident,  nor  is  he 
always  made,  even  temporarily,  lame  by  it. 

The  diaphragm  is  the  muscle  that  controls  inspiration — 
the  act  of  taking  air  into  the  lungs.  When  the  air  enters  the 
lungs,  the  diaphragm  is  pressed  against  the  contents  of  the  ab- 
domen, they  in  turn  press  against  the  abdominal  tunic,  and  it, 
being  fastened  to  the  point  of  the  hip,  exerts  a  pull  there  at  each 
breath.  A  broken  hip,  therefore,  cannot  rest  long  enough  to 
heal  properly,  and  the  symmetry  of  the  part  is  always  marred. 

The  region  between  the  hips,  the  loins,  and  the  posterior 
ribs  is  called  the  flank  (Figure  67).  This  should  be  well  filled 
out  and  not  too  large.  In  the  horse  that  is  well  ribbed  up,  there 
should  be  no  more  than  room  enough  to  lay  the  hand  between 
the  ribs  and  hip.  A  gauntness  appears  in  the  flank  after  great 
exertion,  or  when  feeding  or  watering  has  been  neglected.  A 
horse  that  is  losing  condition  shows  it  first  in  the  flank. 

The  croup  should  slope  downward  toward  the  tail  but  little 
and  should  be  convex  in  profile,  viewed  either  from  the  side  or 
rear.  Horses  whose  croups  slope  too  much  towards  the  rear 
are  termed  goose-rumped  (Figure  68).  Aside  from  being  un- 
sightly, a  goose-rumped  horse  lacks  muscular  development  where 
it  is  very  necessary,  since  certain  of  the  large  muscles  of  the 
thigh  form  their  attachment  there.  These  muscles  originate 
propulsion,  and  any  lack  of  development  or  loss  of  leverage 
reacts  directly  on  the  strength  and  length  of  the  animal's  stride. 
The  five  vertebras  of  the  croup  grow  together  early  in  the  life 
of  the  horse. 

The  dock  is  the  tail,  without  its  hair. 

The  hunter  shown  on  the  opposite  page  is  a  model.  He 
has  a  perfect  back  and  trunk. 


Figure  73. — A  Hunter. 
From  the  painting  by  Otto  Eerelman. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


Ill 


CHAPTER   IX. 


THE  HIND  LEG. 

The  column  of  bones  of  the  hind  leg  are  named  in  Figure  74 
and  the  external  regions  in  Figures  75  and  76.     The  bones  from 

the  hock  down 
are  named  as  in 
the  front  leg. 

The  chief 
function  of  the 
hind  leg  is 
propulsion;     it 

supports  less 
weight  than  the 
front  leg  (in  the 
propor t i o n  of 
three  to  five), 
and  is  less  liable 
t  o  suffer  from 
the  effects  o  f 
concussion.  The 
thigh-bone  ar- 
ticulates with 
the  pelvis  at  its 
lowest  point,  and 
slopes  forward, 
downward,  and 
outward  to  the 
stifle.  It  is 
deeply  imbedd- 
Figure  75.— A  Well-Built  Horse,  from  Behind,  ed  in  muscles  of 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  113 

great  strength  and  mass,  and  its  position  and  movements  are 
entirely  obscured  by  them.  The  thighs  should  be  well  filled  up, 
viewed  from  behind,  leaving  no  open  space  between  the  legs. 
The  stifles  should  be  slightly  wider  apart  than  the  hips,  to  insure 
freedom  of  movement  in  the  stride. 

The  stifle,  or  patella,  corresponds  to  the  human  knee-cap. 
Its  function  is  to  afford  additional  leverage  to  certain  muscles 
that  advance  the  leg.  It  lies  in  front  of  the  stifle-joint,  and  is 
held  in  place  by  several  ligaments.  Dislocations  of  the  patella 
are  rare,  but  are  much  more  frequent  than  dislocations  of  any 
other  joint.  A  horse  suffering  from  this  dislocation  is  said  to 
be  stifled. 

The  leg-bone,  or  tibia,  lies  between  the  stifle-joint  and  the 
hock.  The  lower  part  of  the  muscles  of  the  tibia  is  termed  the 
gaskin,  and  it  is  important  for  fast  work  that  these  muscles  be 
well  developed.  The  muscles  of  the  thigh  start  the  propulsion; 
it  is  accelerated  by  the  upper  muscles  of  the  tibia  and  the  muscles 
of  the  gaskin  give  the  final  impulse  to  the  stride.  They  are 
smaller  and  shorter  than  the  upper  muscles  of  the  hind  leg  and 
their  action  correspondingly  quicker.  It  is  therefore  important 
that  their  development  be  considerable. 

Aside  from  the  rare  dislocations  of  the  patella,  and  fract- 
ure of  the  points  of  the  hips,  there  are  no  common  injuries 
to  be  looked  for  in  the  region  of  the  hind  leg,  above  the  hock. 
This  joint,  however,  is  very  liable  to  be  disabled  by  an  obscure 
disease,  often  difficult  to  discover,  and  always,  when  existing, 
of  a  nature  that  makes  the  animal  permanently  unsound.  This 
disease  is  bone  spavin. 

The  hock  is  a  more  complicated  joint  than  the  knee.  It 
is  composed  of  six  bones,  five  of  which  are  interposed  between 
the  tibia  and  the  cannon-bone,  and  a  sixth  placed  behind  them 
to  act  as  a  lever  for  certain  of  the  tendons  of  the  leg.  In  Figure 
77  the  cannon-bone  is  the  bone  at  the  bottom  of  each  drawing. 
The  tibia,  leg-bone,  is  entirely  removed.  It  articulates  with  the 
—9— 


Figure  77.— The  Bones  of  the  Hoce.JI  i 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  115 

upper  front  bone  that  is  so  deeply  grooved  in  the  cuts.  The  bone 
near  the  numbers  (1,  2,  3,  and  4),  standing  back  of  the  others,  is 
the  sixth  bone  referred  to,  and  is  the  bone  that  forms  the  promi- 
nence in  rear  of  the  hock.  The  true  hock-joint  is  between  the 
upper  bone  of  the  five  and  the  leg-bone;  most  of  the  motion  of 
the  hock  is  about  this  joint,  and  it  is  seldom  diseased.  The 
other  four  bones  have  smaller  motions  among  themselves,  but 
their  principal  function  is  to  lessen,  by  the  elasticity  of  their 
cartilages,  the  shock  of  impact. 

The  properly  shaped  hock  is  clean  in  its  outline,  with  its 
angularities  well  defined.  The  point  of  the  hock  should  be 
prominent,  and  the  depressions  in  front  of  it  should  be  pro- 
nounced; there  must  be  no  puffiness  about  this  joint. 

The  bones  are  covered  with  membranes  that  secrete  fluids 
necessary  for  their  building  up  and  preservation.  The  carti- 
lages between  the  bones  possess  most  of  the  chemical  elements 
of  the  bones  themselves,  except  the  lime  and  other  salts  that 
give  the  bones  their  rigidity  and  strength.  When  the  mem- 
branes or  cartilages  are  injured  through  any  cause,  inflamma- 
tion sets  in,  and  the  functions  of  secretion  are  stimulated.  As 
a  consequence,  more  of  the  bone  salts  are  secreted  than  are 
needed  for  the  maintenance  of  the  bones,  and  the  excess  is  de- 
posited on  the  outside,  in  the  form  of  rough  nodules  that  invade 
the  spaces  needed  for  the  proper  working  of  the  ligaments  and 
tendons  of  the  joint,  or  in  the  tissues  of  the  cartilages,  which 
thereby  loose  their  elasticity  and  become  bone.  This  deposit 
may  go  on  until  the  joint  is  destroyed  by  the  excess  bony  de- 
posit cementing  the  bones  together. 

In  the  hock- joint  there  is  a  great  change  in  the  direction  of 
the  energy  developed  in  the  propelling  muscles,  and  everything 
connected  with  the  joints  should  work  smoothly  to  get  the  best 
results.  Any  strain  due  to  excessive  concussion  is  apt  to  set  up 
inflammation  between  the  lowest  bones  of  the  hock  and  the 
head  of  the  cannon-bone.     This  inflammation,  if  not  stopped 


116 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPO  LOGY. 


before  the  bony  deposit  begins,  results  in  bone  spavin.  Its  usual 
seat  is  shown  opposite  the  upper  turn  of  the  letter  S  in  the 
word  "seat,"  Figure  78. 

The  usual  treatment  of  a  spavin,  after  the  bony  deposit 
has  fairly  begun,  is  to  stimulate  the  deposit  by  artificial  inflam- 
mation until 
the  lowest 
b  o  n  es  are 
united  to  the 
cannon-bone; 
then  to  stop 
the  inflamma- 
tion. Such  a 
spavin  is  said 
to  be  ''cured/7 
but  it  has 
been  cured  at 
the  expense 
of  the  joint, 
which  has 
been  perman- 
ently destroy- 
ed. When  the 
spavin  occurs 
between  t  h  e 
bones ,  no 
visible    en-  Figure  78. 

largement  results  at  first,  but  distressing  lameness,  due  to  ulcer- 
ation of  the  cartilage,  is  caused,  that  is  very  difficult  to  locate. 
This  is  an  occult  spavin. 

A  spavined  horse  goes  truer  after  being  warmed  up. 
If,  after  a  sharp  gallop,  in  which  he  travels  true,  he  is  allowed 
to  stand  for  thirty  minutes,  and  then  sharply  galloped,  he  will, 


QUITTOR 
FALSE  QUART 


. 


*j*$* 


118 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


if  spavined,   go  noticeably  lame.     This  is  a  characteristic  of 
the  disease. 

If  the  existence  of  spavin  is  suspected,  another  test  is  to 
pick  up  the  foot  and  bend  the  hock  well,  holding  the  foot  up  for 
a  minute  or  so.  If  the  horse  travels  sound  immediately  after, 
he  may  be  assumed  to  be  sound. 

Between  most  of  the  joints  of  animals  are  placed  closed 
membranous  sacs,  called  synovial  bursae,  filled  with  a  clear, 
yellowish  fluid,  called  synovial  fluid,  or  joint  oil.  These  sacs 
are  to  diminish 
friction  i  n  the 
joints.  Enlarge- 
ments of  these 
bursse  are  called 
synovial  e  n  - 
lar  ge  me  nts, 
and  are  given 
different  names 
in  different  parts 
of  the  horse's 
anatomy.  About 
the  pasterns, 
and  at  the  knees, 
they  are  called 
wind-  galls;  in 
front  of  the 
hock,  bog  spav- 
in; in  rear  of, 
and  above  it, 
thorough-  pin. 
None  of  these 
enla  rgements 
are,  unless  very 


Figure  80. — Capped  Hock  and  Lymphangitis. 


large  or  inflamed,  causes  of  lameness, 
or  defects  of  conformation. 


They  indicate  weakness 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  119 

Blood-spavin  is  an  enlargement  of  a  large  vein  running  up 
the  leg.  It  is  usually  caused  by  the  pressure  of  a  bog-spavin 
damming  the  flow  of  the  blood  in  the  vein  (Figure  79). 

Capped  hock,  like  capped  elbow,  is,  in  its  first  stage,  a 
blister  (Figure  80).  Its  seat  is  the  point  of  the  hock.  It  is, 
when  first  formed,  easily  removed,  causes  no  lameness,  but 
points  to  bad  stable  habits,  and  is  unsightly.  ' 

A  curb  is  a  protuberance  on  the  back  of  the  hind  leg,  six 
inches  or  so  below  the  point  of  the  hock.  It  is  caused  by  "a 
sprain  of  the  tendon,  which  passes  on  the  posterior  of  the  hock, 
or  of  one  of  its  sheaths,  or  of  the  strong  ligament  situated  on 
the  posterior  border  of  the  upper  bone  of  the  hock."* 

It  is  shown  by  a  bulging  backwards  of  the  posterior  part  of 
the  hock,  interrupting  what  should  be  a  straight  line  between 
the  point  of  the  hock  and  the  fetlock. 

The  inflammation  in  a  curb,  when  it  first  appears,  should 
be  subdued  by  cold  applications,  and  the  further  treatment  of 
it  left  to  a  veterinarian. 

Curb  is  an  unsoundness,  and  a  permanent  disfigurement. 
Its  commonest  cause  is  making  a  horse  stop  suddenly  when  at 
a  rapid  gait,  thus  throwing  an  excessive  strain  on  the  back 
ligaments  of  the  hock. 

Lymphangitis  is  a  disease  of  the  lymph-ducts  (small  ves- 
sels carrying  nourishment  to  the  tissues),  near  the  skin.  It  is 
manifested  by  an  unsightly,  permanent  thickening  of  the  skin. 
It  is  not,  in  its  first  steps,  disabling,  but  is  a  serious  blemish. 

Splints  occur  sometimes  in  the  hind  leg,  but  less  often  than 
in  front.  The  pasterns  of  the  hind  leg  slope  less  than  those  in 
front.  They  are  more  liable  to  ringbones  than  the  front  ones. 
Sidebones  are  very  rare  in  the  hind  foot. 

*Page  349,  "  Diseases  of  the  Horse,"  Bureau  of  Animal  xiidustrv, 
1903. 


120  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

Stringhalt  is  an  involuntary  jerking  up  of  the  hind  leg 
(usually),  bending  the  diseased  member  more  than  the  sound 
one.  It  presents  many  phases,  sometimes  showing  at  the  walk 
only,  sometimes  at  the  trot  only,  sometimes  at  all  gaits.  Its 
cause  is  unknown.  It  is  very  unsightly,  is  incurable,  and  usually 
increases  with  age. 

In  conformation  the  hind  leg  should  be  powerful,  without 
being  clumsy.  The  croup  should  be  concave,  viewed  from  side 
or  rear,  and  the  hips  not  prominent.  The  tail  should  be  carried 
away  from  the  buttocks,  and  should  not  prolong  the  curve  of 
the  croup.  It  is  noteworthy  that  a  horse  possessing  courage 
and  mettle  always  carries  his  tail  well  up  until  utterly  exhausted. 
When  his  tail  drops,  while  he  is  in  motion,  it  is  a  warning  to 
rest  him. 

Viewed  from  the  rear,  there  should  be  a  slight  concavity 
between  the  hips  and  the  stifle,  and  the  stifles  should  be  slightly 
wider  apart  than  the  hips.  If  the  hips  are  wider  than  the  stifles, 
and  prominent,  they  are  said  to  be  ragged.  From  the  stifle  to 
the  hocks,  the  legs  should  converge,  and  the  curve  of  the  gaskin 
should  be  clean-cut  and  pronounced  (Figure  75) .  The  tibia  should 
be — or  should  appear  to  be — very  long,  and  the  hocks  low,  to 
get  great  power.  The  upper  bone  of  the  hock — the  os  calcis — 
should  be  pronounced. 

For  saddle-horses,  the  hind  legs  should  be  "under  the 
croup' ' — that  is,  a  line  dropped  from  the  point  of  the  croup 
should  pass  along  the  cannon,  from  hock  to  fetlock,  or  near  it. 
The  legs,  from  the  hock  to  the  ground,  should  be  parallel  and 
straight.  If  the  hocks  are  nearer  together  than  the  fetlocks, 
the  horse  is  cow-hocked  if  the  hocks  are  wider  apart  than 
the  fetlocks,  he  is  said  to  be  open  behind.  When  the  cannon 
slopes  to  the  front  from  hock  to  pastern,  the  horse  is  sickle- 
hocked.     All  of  these  conditions  are  objectionable. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  121 

The  hind  legs  are  less  liable  to  injury  than  the  front  ones 
in  saddle-horses  not  trained  to  jump,  in  cavalry-horses,  and  in 
polo-ponies,  while  in  hunters  and  in  harness-horses  the  hocks 
are  the  most  vulnerable  places. 


122 


ELEMENTS    OF    HlttOLOGY. 


CHAPTER  X. 


THE  HORSE'S  FOOT. 

The  foot  of  the  horse,  from  a  standpoint  of  comparative 
anatomy,  includes  everything  below  the  knee  or  hock.  Prac- 
tically, horsemen,  in  speaking  of  the  horse's  foot,  refer  only  to  the 
hoof  and  its  contents.  The 
hoof  corresponds  in  its 
structure  to  the  nail  on  the 
toes  of  other  animals. 

The  foot  is  one  of  the  most 
important  parts  of  the 
horse  to  study,  because  it  is 
the  seat  of  so  many  dis- 
abling diseases,  practically 
all  of  which  can  be  prevented 
by  proper  care  and  use. 

The  foot  is  a  very  com- 
plex member.  It  is  built 
around  three  bones:  the 
coffin-bone,  the  navicu- 
lar bone,  and  the  lower 
pastern-bone. 

The  coffin-bone,  the  low- 
est bone  of  all,  lies  wholly 
within  the  hoof.  It  is  wedge- 
shaped,  concave  on  its  under  surface,  and  cylindrical  on  the  up- 
per sides  of  its  anterior  and  lateral  faces.  In  rear  it  branches 
into  two  parts,  called  the  wings  of  the  coffin-bone. 

Immediately  above  the  coffin-bone,  and  resting  on  its  highest 
part,  rises  the  lower  pastern-  or  coronary-bone;  and  in  the 


COFFIN      BO 


Figure  81. — Nomenclature  of 
the  Bones  of  the  Foot. 


ELEMENTS    OF    H1PP0L0GY. 


123 


Cannon  bone 


angle  behind  the  joint,  formed  by  the  coffin-  and  lower  pastern- 
bone,  fits  the  navicular-bone.  These  three  bones  are  bound 
together  by  several  short,  strong  ligaments.  Two  wide  and 
thick  pieces  of  cartilage,  continuing  the  wings  of  the  coffin-bone, 
called  the  lateral  cartilages  of  the  coffin-bone,  fit  in  behind 

the  three 
bones,  be- 
tween them 
and  the 
walls  of  the 
hoof,  and 
act  as 
springs  to 
keep  the 
bones  from 
Upper  pastern  plunging 
too  violent- 


Sescunoid,  bone 


Plantar 
cushion 


Frog 


Coffin 
bone 


ly  into  the 
w  e  d  g  e  - 
shaped   in- 

L'ower  pastern^QYl0r  °  * 
the  hoof, 
when  ever 
the  foot 
strikes  the 
ground. 

A    large, 
wide     ten- 
don fastens 
itself  to  the 
under   side 
of  the  coffin-bone,  bends  around  the  roller-shaped  navicular-bone, 
passes  behind  the  coronary-bone,  and  on  up  to  its  muscular  de- 
velopment above  the  knee  or  hock.    This  is  the  principal  flexor— 


Figure  82. — The  Foot  in  Cross-Section. 


124  ELEMENTS    OF    H1PP0L0GY. 

pulling  back — tendon  of  the  leg.  Another  broad  tendon  is  fas- 
tened to  the  front  of  the  coffin-bone  to  pull  it  forward.  This  is 
an  extensor  tendon.     Both  are  well  shown  in  Figure  82. 

Under  the  flexor  tendon  and  the  lateral  cartilages  is  placed 
a  soft,  highly  elastic  cushion,  called  the  plantar  cushion,  that, 
by  its  compression  between  the  sole  and  frog  of  the  hoof  on  its 
under  side  and  the  tendon  and  lateral  cartilages  above  it,  acts 
to  soften  the  shock  of  impact. 

Enveloping  all  the  structures  above  enumerated  is  the  fleshy 
continuation  of  the  skin,  much  changed  in  appearance  from  that 
above  the  hoof.  This  covering  is  highly  vascular — that  is,  it  is 
abundantly  supplied  with  nerves  and  with  blood  and  other  ves- 
sels that  supply  the  foot.  The  upper  border  of  this  covering  is 
called  the  coronary  band,  and  along  the  upper  border  of  this 
band  is  another  band,  called  the  perioplic  ring.  Below  the 
coronary  band  the  fleshy  covering  of  the  foot  is  covered  with  a 
series  of  little  ridges,  called  the  sensitive  laminae.  They  fit 
into  corresponding  depressions  in  the  inner  surface  of  the  wall . 
These  depressions  in  the  wall  are  called  the  insensitive  laminae. 

On  the  plantar  surface,  the  fleshy  envelope  is  called  the 
velvety  tissue. 

The  hoof  is  the  nail  of  the  horse.  It  is  composed  of  three 
parts — the  wall,  the  sole,  and  the  frog.  The  wall  includes  all 
that  portion  of  the  horny  box  that  is  visible  when  the  foot  is  on 
the  ground.  The  wall  is  divided  into  three  regions :  the  toe,  in 
front;  the  quarters,  on  the  sides;  and  the  heels,  in  rear.  At  the 
heels  the  wall  doubles  back,  towards  the  center  of  the  foot, 
forming  the  bars.  The  wall  is  thickest  at  the  toe  and  is  grad- 
ually thinner  towards  the  heels,  where  it  thickens  again  to  form 
the  bars.  The  outer  face  of  the  wall  is  composed  of  a  great 
number  of  filaments,  similar  to  hair  in  their  growth  and  compo- 
sition, compacted  firmly  together  with  a  natural  glue,  and  grow- 
ing downward  from  the  coronary  band.  It  is  covered  with  a  sort 
of  natural  varnish  that  is  secreted  by  the  perioplic  ring.     The 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


125 


function  of  this  varnish  is  to  retain  the  moisture  of  the  horn, 
which  shrinks  on  drying  and  is  liable  to  crack.  The  interior  face 
of  the  wall  is  composed  of  the  insensitive  laminae. 

The  sole  is  a  horny  plate,  fitting  into  the  wall,  strongly  ce- 
mented to  it  and  with  a  V-shaped  opening  in  the  back  that  is 
lined,  for  two-thirds  the  distance  from  the  heels,  by  the  bars 
above  referred  to.     The  ground  surface  of  the  sole  is  arched  so 

that,  in  its  natural  state, 
it  does  not  come  into  con- 
tact with  the  ground. 

The  frog  is  a  soft,  horny 
wedge,  let  into  the  angle  of 
the  bars  and  sole,  and  lying 
under  the  rJantar  cushion. 
It  is  quite  deeply  cleft  at 
the  heels  into  two  parts 
that  unite  towards  the  angle 
of  the  V. 

pin    its    natural,    healthy 

state  the  frog  rests   on  the 

^Coronary  ground   to    act    as    a   stay 

against   slipping.     For  this 

■ny  frog  purpose  a  healthy    frog    is 

Hoof,  Frog,  Coronary   much  be«er  than  any  arti- 


Ankle 


Figure  83. 


Band,  and  Ankle. 


ficial  arrangement. 


The  fore  foot  is  rounder,  more  spread  out,  less  concave,  and 
a  little  wider  than  the  hind  foot.  Its  heels  are  closer  together. 
and  the  angle  of  its  wall  is  usually  more  oblique  than  the  hind  foot. 

The  hoof -wall  grows  dowriward  from  the  coronary  band. 
The  new  growth  is  always  at  the  top,  pushing  the  old  growth 
downward.  This  old  growth  must  be  removed,  either  by  natural 
wear,  in  the  unshod  horse,  or  by  the  blacksmith  when  the  horse 
is  shod.  The  sole  and  frog  grow  in  the  direction  of  their 
own  thickness,  and  surplus  growth  scales  off,  unassisted. 


126  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

It  requires  about  eight  months  to  grow  a  new  hoof.  This 
growth  of  wall  is  faster  at  the  toe  than  at  the  heel,  and  in  the 
unshod  horse  the  wear  is  greater  at  the  toe,  consequently  the 
wall  is  maintained  at  the  proper  height. 

The  hoof  grows  faster  during  a  moist,  warm  season,  if  the 
animal  is  in  good  health,  than  it  does  in  dry  or  cold  weather,  or 
when  the  horse  is  debilitated.  The  hoof  often, shows  the  effect 
of  the  more  favorable  season  by  a  thickened  ring  in  the  horn. 
Such  rings,  when  of  healthy  growth,  are  called  grass  rings. 

When  the  foot  strikes  the  ground  the  tendency  is  to  force 
the  coffin-bone  down  into  its  wedge-shaped  seat.  This  is  pre- 
vented by  the  intimate  union  between  the  sensitive  and  in- 
sensitive laminse  (whose  folds,  if  spread  to  their  complete  de- 
velopment, would  cover  more  than  a  square  yard),  and  by  the 
elastic  resistance  of  the  frog,  the  plantar  cushion,  the  flexor 
tendon,  and  the  lateral  cartilages. 

The  sensitive  and  insensitive  laminse  not  only  dovetail  into 
each  other  in  the  direction  of  their  length,  but  they  are  also 
provided  with  multiple  barbs  that  also  interlock  and  resist  any 
sliding  tendency.  All  these  elastic  media  unite  in  receiving  the 
shock  of  impact  and  transmit  it  gradually  through  the  bones 
and  tendons  of  the  legs  and  to  the  muscles  above  for  its  fina  1 
decomposition. 

The  foot  itself  actually  spreads  out  slightly,  and  the  con- 
cavity of  the  sole  is  reduced  at  the  moment  of  impact.  For  this 
reason,  except  when  necessary  to  prevent  the  undue  spreading 
of  the  heels  while  the  horse  is  in  motion,  shoes  should  be  left 
open  at  the  heels. 

The  plantar  surface  of  the  foot  is  shown  in  Figure  85,  after 
it  has  been  levelled  off  to  receive  the  shoe.  The  frog  and  its 
cleft  are  clearly  seen.  The  doubling  back  of  the  wall  to  form 
the  bars  shows  plainly  at  the  heels.  The  line  of  demarcation 
between  the  sole  and  wall  is  shown  in  the  dark  line  paralleling 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


127 


the  wall  at  the  toe.     The  position  of  this  line  also  shows  the 
thickness  of  the  sole. 

A  saddle-horse  should  not  have  too  large  a  foot.  A  large 
foot  is  characteristic  of  a  slow,  lymphatic  animal.  Its  horn  is 
usually  less  dense  than  in  a  smaller  foot  on  a  horse  of  the  same 
size.     Such  a  horse  is  more  liable  to  diseases  of  the  feet  when 


Figure  84. — The  Hoof. 

the  horse  is  called  on  to  do  fast  work.  Large  feet  belong  properly 
to  draft-horses. 

The  foot  should  not  be  too  small,,  for  its  smallness  will 
usually  be  at  the  expense  of  thickness  of  wall. 

The  feet  should  be  of  the  same  size,  allowing  for  the  differ- 
ence in  shape  in  fore  and  hind  feet,  and  the  angle  of  the  wall  at 
the  toe  should  be  about  forty-five  degrees,  getting  gradually 
more  nearly  vertical  as  it  approaches  the  heels. 

If  the  angle  at  the  toe  is  much  less  than  forty-five  degrees, 
the  horse  is  said  to  be  flat-footed.  .  This  is  usually  accompanied 
by  a  flat  sole  and  a  predisposition  to  disease. 


128 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


A  horse  that  toes-in  is  said  to  be  pigeon-toed,  and  out- 
bowed  if  he  toes  out.  If  one  foot  points  to  the  right  or  left, 
while  the  other  one  is  straight,  he  is  club-footed. 

A  vertical  plane,  paralleling  the  axis  of  the  horse,  and  cut- 
ting the  foot  at  the  toe,  should  split  the  foot  in  half,  and  contain 
the  axis  of  the  leg.  In  other  words,  the  forearm  and  cannon 
should  be  straight  and  vertical,  and  the  foot  should  be  set  squarely 
to  the  front  on  the  same  vertical  axis.  The  outer  lines  of  the 
two  forearms  usually  converge  towards  the  knee,  due  to  mus- 
cular development.     The  column  of  bones  should  be  straight. 


Figure  85. — The  Plantar  Surface  of  the  Foot. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


129 


CHAPTER   XI. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  FOOT. 

As  we  have  seen,  there  is  seldom  reason  to  suspect  disease 
in  the  horse  in  the  shoulder  or  thigh,  and  only  occasionally  in 
the  elbow,  forearm,  stifle,  or  gaskin.     The  knee,  the  hock,  and 

the  cannons  are 
quite  often,  and  the 
pasterns  and  feet 
are  especially  liable 
to  be  the  seats  of 
disease.  In  the 
feet,  no  part  is 
exempt. 

Beginning  at  the 
plantar  surface,  we 
find  a  very  common 
disease  in  inflam- 
mation of  the  frog, 
called,  commonly, 
thrush. 

Thrush  is  a  dis- 
ease of  filth  and 
neglect.  The  salts 
of  urine  have  an  es- 
pecially bad  influ- 
ence on  horses' 
feet,  and  those 
animals  that  are  allowed  to  stand  in  mud-puddles  made  of  the 
clay  of  their  stalls  mixed  with  urine  are  very  apt  to  have  this 

disease.     It  also  comes  from  subjecting  the  animals  to  extremes 
—10— 


Figure  86. — Thrush  and  Contracted  Heei 


130  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

of  dryness  and  moisture,  from  hard  work  on  rough,  stony  ground, 
or  from  being  continually  working  or  standing  in  mud. 

The  disease  first  shows  itself  by  a  constant  moisture  and 
foul  odor  in  the  cleft  of  the  frog.  If  neglected,  a  thin  watery 
discharge  follows,  changing  into  a  thick,  very  offensive  discharge; 
in  this  stage  the  frog  becomes  rapidly  destroyed. 

The  treatment  is  cleanliness  and  the  removal  of  the  exciting 
cause.  This  will  usually  be  sufficient  in  the  first  stages.  In  the 
late  progress  of  the  disease  it  resists  treatment  stubbornly,  and 
needs  most  careful  attention.  In  the  absence  of  a  veterinarian, 
the  foot  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  the  ragged  parts  of  the 
frog  cut  away.  The  diseased  parts  should  then  be  dusted  with 
calomel  or  iodoform,  and  the  cleft  packed  with  oakum.  The 
foot  should  then  be  bandaged,  to  keep  out  the  dirt.  If  the  horse 
must  be  used  during  the  day,  remove  the  bandage  while  the 
horse  is  at  work,  renewing  the  treatment  after  the  day's  work 
is  over.     This  treatment  must  continue  until  the  frog  is  sound. 

One  of  the  serious  conditions  attending  this  disease  is  that 
it  is  not  a  cause  of  lameness  until  it  has  reached  a  very  serious 
stage. 

Canker  is  a  disease  of  the  sole  and  frog  that  is  of  germ 
origin.  The  canker-germ  usually  does  not  attack  a  sound  foot, 
but  is  found  to  be  a  sequel  to  thrush  or  to  a  punctured  wound  of 
the  foot.  If  it  originates  in  a  puncture,  it  is  noticed  that  the 
wound  does  not  heal,  but  becomes  more  and  more  aggravated. 
If  it  occurs  independently  of  an  injury,  it  is  first  noticed  by  its 
offensive  odor,  the  discharge  from  the  cleft  and  sides  of  the  frog, 
and  the  rotting  away  of  the  sole.     Surgery  is  the  best  treatment. 

A  corn  is  a  blood-blister  in  the  living  tissues  of  the  sole. 
It  is  caused  by  a  bruise  to  that  part  of  the  sole  between  the  bars 
and  the  wall,  where  the  sole  is  thinnest.  If  the  horse  goes  lame 
in  one  leg,  without  apparent  cause,  his  shoe  should  be  pulled, 
and  the  seat  of  corn  pared  out.  If,  instead  of  showing  white, 
the  sole  shows  a  discolored  spot,  with  reddish  streaks — inflamed 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


131 


capillaries — radiating  from  it,  the  trouble  is  from  a  corn.  The 
treatment  is  to  cut  out  the  sole  immediately  over  the  corn,  to 
keep  the  shoe  from  bearing  on  it. 

The  fore  feet  are  almost  exclusively  subject  to  corns.  While 
in  motion,  the  horse  strikes  the  ground  first  with  the  heels  of  his 
fore  feet  and  with  the  toes  of  his  hind  feet. 

If  the  seat  of  corn  is  repeatedly  bruised,  as  is  the  case  when 
the  shoe  is  left  on  too  long,  and  the  heel  bears  directly  on  the 
seat  of  corn,  it  often  suppurates,  and  the  inflammation  spreads 
to  the  velvety  tissue  and  the  laminae.  This  is  an  uncommon 
and  extremely  serious  phase  of  the  disease. 

A  bruised  sole  is  a  similar  trouble,  resulting  from  a  severe 
blow  to  the  sole.  It  is  very  difficult  to  locate,  and  can  only  be 
cured  by  rest,  and,  when  suppuration  results,  by  surgery. 

Contracted  heels  is  a  common  disease  among  all  classes  of 
horses,  but  especially  among  saddle-horses.  It.  is  a  result  of 
diseases  that  cause  the  destruction  of  the  frog,  or  of  a  wasting 
away  of  the  frog  from  disuse,  as  in  the  case  with  horses  habitualU 
shod  with  calks.  The  heels,  robbed  of  the  support  of  the  healthy 
frog,  pinch  in  together  (Figure  86).  The  only  remedy  is  tore- 
store  the  frog,  and  usually  this  is  impossible. 

Cracked  heels,  or  scratches,  is  a  disease  similar  to  the 
familiar  chapped  hands.  Its  location  is  in  the  tender  skin  over 
the  heels  and  under  the  fetlock.  It  is  easily  recognized  by 
longitudinal  cracks  in  the  skin,  showing  red  under  at  first.  If 
neglected,  the  fluids  that  escape  will  dry  and  form  thick  crusts 
on  each  side  of  the  cracks.  The  cracks  often  become  infected 
and  suppurate.  Similar  cracks  at  the  bend  of  the  knee  and 
hock,  called,  respectively,  malanders  and  salanders,  some- 
times appear,  and,  in  certain  badly  neglected  cases,  these  regions 
unite,  presenting  a  most  loathsome  aspect.  Scratches  are  al- 
most always  caused  by  filth,  neglect,  or  bad  treatment,  and  are 
cur^d  by  cleanliness  and  dryness.  Extreme  cases  need  expert 
treatment. 


132  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

A  good  treatment  for  the  first  stages  of  the  disease  is  to 
bathe  the  part  until  it  is  clean,  dry  it  well,  and  apply  carbolized 
vaseline  locally.  This  dressing  must  be  frequently  changed,  as 
dust  adheres  to  it  and,  if  left  on  after  it  becomes  caked  with  dust, 
it  may  do  more  harm  than  good.  The  patient  must  be  rested, 
as  the  cracks  open  with  each  step  the  horse  takes. 

Horses  that  are  tied  by  so  long  a  rope  that  they  can  tangle 
their  hind  (very  rarely  the  fore)  foot  in  it,  will  usually  struggle 
to  free  themselves,  and  often  seriously  chafe  the  tender  skin  under 
the  fetlock;  such  a  chafe  is  termed  a  rope-burn.  Because  of 
their  position  and  the  difficulty  of  keeping  the  part  at  rest,  they 
are  tedious  to  heal,  and,  when  healed,  leave  unsightly  scars.  Rope- 
burns  are  merely  blemishes  when  they  heal  without  causing 
stiffness  in  the  action.  On  account  of  their  unsightliness,  it  is 
best  to  prevent  them  by  watching  horses  that  are  picketed  out- 
very  carefully  until  they  have  learned  how  to  avoid  burning 
themselves.  In  the  stables,  care  should  be  taken  that  a  horse 
is  tied  short  enough  that  he  cannot  get  his  hind  foot  over  the  rope. 
Brushing,  cutting,  or  interfering  are  names  given  to 
indicate  an  injury  to  the  fetlock  of  either  a  fore  or  hind  foot, 
done  by  striking  the  fetlock  with  the  opposite  foot.  They  are 
caused  by  improper  shoeing,  weariness,  or  defective  action,  and 
are  prevented  by  proper  shoeing  or  by  the  use  of  boots  or  so- 
called  interfering  straps. 

Forging,  or  clicking,  is  the  striking  of  the  under  side  of 
the  shoe  or  the  sole  of  the  front  foot  by  the  toe  of  the  hind  hoof 
or  shoe  on  the  same  side.  It  is  caused  usually  by  defective  ac- 
tion. The  front  foot  is  slow  in  recovering  from  a  stride  and  is 
struck  at  the  instant  it  is  most  bent  to  the  rear.  The  theory 
has  been  advanced  that  the  horse  does  it  willfully,  because  he 
likes  to  hear  the  click  as  the  shoes  come  together.  It  is  corrected 
by  special  shoeing. 

Coronitis  is  the  name  for  inflammation  of  the  coronary 
band.  This  disease  is  usually  the  accompaniment  of  some  other 
disease  of  the  foot. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


133 


Wounds  or  bruises  of  the  coronet  are  known  by  the  general 
name  of  treads,  because -they  come  usually  from  being  stepped 
on.  Treads  are  dangerous  when  they  affect  the  extensor  tendon, 
or  when  they  injure  the  joint  between  the  coffin-bone  and  the 
coronary-bone.     A  tread  must  be  kept^very  clean,  and  infection 

must  be  very 
c[a  r  e  f  u  1  1  y 
guar  d  e  d 
against  by  the 
use  of  antisep- 
t  i  c  dressings 
-  as  iodoform, 
calomel,  o  r 
car  b  o  1  i  z  e  d 
vaseline. 

If  the  tread 
is  serious 
enough  to  de- 
stroy part  of 
the  coronary 
band,  the 
part  of  the 
hoof  that  was 
supplied  b  y 
the  destroyed 
part  fills  in,  in 
an  irregular 
way,  from  the 
sides  and  from  beneath,  and  a  malformation  called  false  quarter 
results. 

A  puncture  is  a  wound  to  the  foot,  caused  by  a  nail  or 
other  sharp  object  being  driven  into  the  sensitive  parts  of  the  foot. 
Any  infection  within  the  rim  of  the  hoof,  resulting  in  sup- 
puration, forms  an  abscess  that  cannot  drain  downward.     As 


QUITTCR 
FALSE  QUART 


Figure  87. — Quittor  and  False  Quarter. 


134  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

the  pus  accumulates  it  is  forced  upward  usually  until  the  sinus 
reaches  the  rim  of  the  coronary  band,  where  an  open  sore  re- 
sults. Such  a  sore,  a  fistula,  is  called  a  quittor.  Frequently, 
in  the  history  of  quittors,  the  sole  is  finally  penetrated  by  the 
pus,  and  natural  drainage  results.  A  quittor  is  almost  always 
the  result  of  neglect,  and  in  its  most  frequent  form  is  the  result 
of  a  neglected  tread. 

Cracks  in  the  hoof  running  up  and  down  are  termed  sand- 
cracks  when  in  the  toe — usually  in  the  hind  feet,  and  quarter- 
cracks  when  on  the  inside — usually  on  the  front  feet.  The 
outside  of  the  feet  is  seldom  cracked.  Cracks  are  usually  caused 
by  defective  shoeing  or  by  excessive  dryness. 

Side  bones  are  the  ossifications  resulting  from  inflamed 
lateral  cartilages.  These  cartilages  help  receive  and  distribute 
the  shock  of  impact.  Inflammation  causes  bony  deposits  to 
replace  the  cartilaginous  tissue.  These  deposits  often  grow  to 
be  noticeably  large. 

Navicular  disease  is  the  result  of  an  injury  to  the  navic- 
ular-bone  or  to  its  coverings  or  attachments  that  either  fractures 
the  bone  or  sets  up  destructive  inflammation  in  it. 

The  navicular-bone  is  a  little  roller-shaped  bone,  lying  in 
the  posterior  angle  between  the  lower  pastern-bone  and  the 
coffin-bone.  The  perforans  tendon  is  fastened  to  the  under  side 
of  the  coffin-bone.  It  bends  over  the  navicular-bone,  passes 
behind  the  pastern,  and,  bending  again  over  the  sesamoids, 
goes  upward  to  its  muscular  development  above  the  knee. 

This  tendon  transmits  much  of  the  shock  of  impact.  The 
navicular-bone,  pinched  in  between  it  and  the  other  bones  of 
the  foot,  is  subjected  to  tremendous  pressure  at  every  stride. 
Its  surface  must  be  smooth  and  well  lubricated  in  order  that  the 
tendon  perforans  may  slip  smoothly  over  it,  in  response  to  the 
action  of  the  muscles  controlling  it.  If  the  pressure  of  the 
tendon  is  too  great  for  the  health  of  the  bone,  it  breaks,  or 
its  envelope  becomes  inflamed  and  its  structure  changes.     Its 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


135 


surface  becomes  rough  and  chafes  the  sheath  of  the  tendon, 
and,  as  the  bone  is  inaccessible  to  the  surgeon,  the  evil  done  is 
irremedial.  Navicular  disease  is  incurable  and  very  painful. 
In  order  to  render  the  horse  unconscious  of  this  pain,  and  so 

prolong  i  t  s  usefulness 
until  a  complete  break- 
down occurs,  a  portion 
of  the  sensory  nerve  sup- 
plying the  foot  is  re- 
moved by  an  operation 
called  neurotomy. 

"In  the  early  stages  of 
navicular  disease  the 
symptoms  are  generally 
very  obscure.  When  the 
disease  begins  in  inflam- 
mation of  the  navicular 
bone,  the  animal,  while 
at  rest,  'points'  the  af- 
fected foot  a  time  before 
any.  lameness  is  seen. 
While  at  work,  he  ap- 
parently travels  as  well 
as  ever,  but  when  placed 
in  the  stable,  one  foot  is 
set  out  in  front  of  the 
other,  resting  on  the  toe, 
with  fetlock  and  knee 
flexed.  After  a  time, 
if  the  case  is  closely 
watched,  the  animal  takes  a  few  lame  steps  while  at  work, 
but  the  lameness  disappears  as  suddenly  as  it  came,  and 
the  driver  doubts  if  the  animal  was  really  lame  at  all.  Later 
on  the  patient  has  a  lame  spell,  which  may  last  during  the  greater 


Figure  88. 


136 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


part  of  a  day,  but  the  next  morning  it  is  gone;  he  leaves  the 
stable  all  right,  but  goes  lame  again  during  the  day.  In  time  he 
has  a  severe  attack  of  lameness,  which  may  last  a  week  or  more, 
when  a  remission  takes  place,  and  it  may  be  weeks  or  months 


Figure  89. — Pointing  a  Toe  for  Navicular  Disease. 

before  another  attack  supervenes.     Finally,  he  becomes  con- 
stantly lame,  and  the  more  he  is  used  the  greater  the  lameness."* 
The  polo-pony  pointing  his  toe  in  Figure  89  went  through 
the  phases  described  above  exactly.     The  first  long  attack  came 

*Page  410,  "  Diseases  of  the  Horse,"  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 
1903. 


ELEMEXTS    OF    HIPPO  LOGY. 


137 


on  during  the  early  spring,  and  he  recovered  from  it  before  the 
polo  seasoned  open.  He  played  a  fast  game  every  fine  day  during 
the  season.  His  second  attack  came  on  during  the  next  winter 
and  lasted  several  weeks.  The  following  spring  he  played  well 
for  two  months,  and  then  went  permanently  lame. 

Navicular  dis- 
ease does  not 
attack  the  hind 
feet.  (There  are 
but  two  cases  on 
record,  according  to 
Moller,  an  eminent 
German  veterinar- 
ian.) 

A   ringbone 

(Figure  90)  is  a 
bony  growth  on  the 
ankle.  It  is  not  a 
disease  in  itself,  but, 
like  bone  spavin,  is 
a  result  of  inflam- 
mation in  bone- 
producing  tissues. 
Ringbones  are 
caused  by  blows, 
sprains,  overwork, 
too  fast  work  on 
hard  roads,  jump- 
ing, and  the  like.  Horses  whose  pasterns  are  too  short  and  up- 
right are  more  liable  to  the  disease  that  causes  ringbone  than 
those  with  long,  elastic  pasterns. 

The  first  symptom  is  lameness.  A  puff,  hot  and  harder 
than  the  ordinary  wind-gall,  is  noticeable.  The  ringbones  that 
develop  under  the  extensor  tendon  or  near  the  navicular  joint 


Figure  90. 


138  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

are  the  most  distressing,  and  are  almost  sure  to  produce  incurable 
lameness.  Those  on  the  side  of  the  bone,  or  high  up  on  the 
upper  pastern,  are  sometimes  called  false  ringbones,  and  do  not 
always  cause  lameness.  A  ringbone  is  difficult  to  diagnose  in 
its  early  stages,  but  in  its  full  growth  can  be  easily  seen  and  felt. 
The  treatment  for  ringbone  is  the  same  as  for  spavin.  If  the 
ringbone  interferes  with  the  action  of  the  extensor  tendon  or  the 
navicular  joint,  recovery  is  impossible.  A  horse  suffering  from 
ringbone  in  front  points  his  foot  by  resting  it  on  the  heel. 

Founder,  or  laminitis,  is  inflammation  of  the  sensitive 
laminae  of  the  foot.  Like  all  inflammation  in  soft  tissues,  it  is 
accompanied  by  congestion.  The  excess  of  blood  fluids  causes 
great  pressure  to  be  brought  on  the  outer  face  of  the  coffin-bone, 
sufficient  in  very  severe  attacks  to  force  that  bone  through  the 
sole,  causing  dropped  sole.  In  acute  attacks  the  horse  gives 
every  evidence  of  suffering  great  pain.  He  is  very  lame,  the 
pulse  and  temperature  r^e  rapidly.  He  breathes  rapidly,  with 
nostrils  open  and  heaving  sides.  He  refuses  food,  but  drinks 
copiously.  The  coronets  and  ankles  are  hot  and  dry,  and  the 
artery  of  the  fetlock  throbs  noticeably. 

If  only  one  front  foot  is  affected,  he  relieves  that  foot  of  as 
much  weight  as  possible  by  advancing  it  and  resting  it  on  its  heel. 
When  urged  forward,  he  either  carries  the  lame  foot  in  the  air, 
hopping  from  the  other,  or  he  puts  it  carefully  forward  on  its 
heel  and  quickly  advances  the  other  of  the  pair.  He  has  great 
difficulty  in  turning  towards  the  side  of  the  lame  foot. 

If  both  front  feet  are  affected,  the  animal  will  be  very  hard 
to  move.  He  advances  by  cautiously  planting  the  fore  feet  and 
then  quickly  brings  his  hind  feet  well  forward.  When  standing, 
he  rests  his  head  on  the  manger  or  hangs  it  down  nearly  to  the 
floor.* 


*The  discussion  of  founder  is  condensed  from  Dr.  A.  A.  Hol- 
combe's  article  on  Diseases  of  the  Fetlock,  Ankle,  and  Foot,  "Diseases 
of  the  Horse,"  p.  417,  et  seq. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  139 

If  the  hind  feet  are  affected,  they  are  planted  well  to  the 
front  to  bring  the  weight  on  the  heels,  and  the  fore  feet  are  car- 
ried back,  supporting  as  much  of  the  weight  as  possible.  It  is 
extremely  difficult  for  a  horse  foundered  behind  to  move  at  all. 
All  four  feet  are  seldom  affected  at  the  same  time. 

In  mild  cases  the  attacks  last  but  a  day  or  two.  More 
serious  cases  run  their  course  in  one  to  two  weeks.  The  more 
often  the  cases  recur,  the  longer  will  be  the  period  of  recovery. 

The  causes  of  founder  are  many  and  apparently  unrelated. 
Concussion  is  a  prolific  cause;  over-exertion  when  tired,  and  ex- 
haustion, are  equally  prolific.  Rapid  changes  of  temperature — 
sudden  cooling  after  becoming  very  hot,  either  by  watering  the 
horse  copiously,  or  by  standing  him  uncovered  in  a  draft — is  a 
very  common  cause  and  the  one  most  easily  prevented.  Neglect 
of  "  cooling  out"  a  hot  horse  in  summer  might  cause  laminitis; 
in  the  winter  the  same  neglect  would  be  more  apt  to  cause  con- 
gestion of  the  lungs,  followed  by  pneumonia. 

Chronic  laminitis  is  the  result  of  continued  attacks  of  lam- 
initis. There  is  always  fever  in  the  feet.  Due  to  the  inflam- 
mation, more  horn  is  deposited  than  the  hoof  needs;  it  is  of  poor 
quality,  and  the  hoof  becomes  misshapen  and  scaly.  Rings, 
showing  this  morbid  growth,  appear  in  the  hoof.  These  rings 
usually  correspond  to  each  acute  attack.  They  are  roughly 
parallel  to  the  coronet,  as  shown  in  Figure  91.  The  altered 
position  of  the  cofhn-bone  is  also  shown  there.  These  rings  are 
easily  distinguished  from  the  grass  rings  in  a  healthy  foot,  re- 
ferred to  in  the  last  chapter. 

Seedy  toe  is  a  cavity  in  the  horn,  usually  in  the  toe,  due  to 
a  loss  of  secreting  power  in  the  laminae.  It  is  usually  a  result 
of  founder. 

The  anatomy  of  a  horse  is  such  that  the  muscles  of  the  fore- 
leg are  at  rest  when  he  is  standing  squarely  on  both  front  legs. 
This  is  not  true  behind,  where  he  supports  his  weight  alternately 
on  each  leg,  resting  the  other  on  its  toe. 


140 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


A  horse  that  does  not  stand  squarely  on  a  front  foot  is  said 
to  point  it.  If  he  points  it  on  the  toe,  the  trouble  will  be  found 
in  the  flexor  tendon,  or  on  some  tissue  that  it  works  against,  not 
in  the  laminae.  Hence,  a  horse  pointing  on  his  toe  is  suspected 
of  navicular  disense  or  strained  back  tendons.  A  horse  having 
corns  would  point  on  the  toe.  If  he  rests  it  on  the  heel,  it  is  to 
relieve  pain  in  the  laminae  or  under  the  extensor  tendon,  and  he 
is  suspected  of  founder  or  ringbone. 


<■■■■■! 


Figure  91. — Foundered  Feet 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


141 


CHAPTER   XII 


THE   PRINCIPLES   OF   HORSESHOEING    FOR  HORSES 
WITH  ORDINARY  FEET.* 

As  has  been  shown  in  Chapter  X.  the  horse  renews  his  hoof 
in  about  eight  months;  and  that  the  surplus  growth  of  the  horn 
of  the  wall  must  be  removed,  either  by  the  wear  resulting  from  the 

natural  movements  of 
the  horse,  or  by  arti- 
ficial means,  while  the 
surplus  growth  of  the 
sole  and  frog  scales  off 
of  itself  when  no  long- 
er needed. 

The  horn  of  the 
horse's  hoof,  while 
quite  enough  protec- 
tion for  sensitive  tis- 
sues beneath  while  the 
horse  is  at  pasture,  is 
not  sufficient  while  he 
is  at  work,  and  the 
artificial  protection  of 
the  horseshoe  is  neces- 
sary. 

The  shoe  protects 
the  wall  from  wear,  and  consequently  is  carried  by  the  wall, 
in   the     latter 's     growth,     away    from    the   sole.       The    wall 


Figure  92. — Appearance  ok  a  Shoe 
Left  on  Too  Long 


*This  chapter  is  adapted,  by  permission,  from  Fitzwygram's 
"Horses  and  Stables,"  1901  edition,  making  omy  such  changes  as  are 
demanded  by  our  Cavalry  Drill  Regulations. 


142  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

grows  much  faster  at  the  toe  than  at  the  heel,  dragging 
the  shoe  forward  slightly,  and  gradually  changing  the  angle 
the  coffin-bone  makes  with  the  pastern-bone.  This  has  the  ef- 
fect of  diminishing  the  work  of  the  extensor  tendon  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  flexor  tendon.  Not  only  is  this  equilibrium  de- 
stroyed by  leaving  the  shoe  on  too  long,  but  the  heel  of  the  shoe 


Figure  93. — Shoe  on  Too  Long 

gradually  bears  more  and  more  on  the  seat  of  corn,  rendering 
lameness  from  corns  extremely  liable. 

Experience  teaches  that  four  weeks  is  the  safe  limit  to  leave 
the  shoe  on  without  re-seating  it.  This  gives  importance  to  the 
first  rule  in  the  care  of  the  horse's  feet: 

All  shoes  to  be  removed  at  the  end  of  a  month's  wear. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  143 

Figure  93  shows  a  shoe  that  has  been  on  about  seven  weeks. 
The  frog  has  shrunken  and  the  shoe  is  brought  forward.  The 
worn  appearance  of  the  toe  would  lead  to  the  belief  that  the 
horse  is  a  stumbler. 

All  shoes  have  the  fault  of  preventing  the  natural  expansion 
and  contraction  of  the  foot,  due  to  the  elastic  action  of  its  tissues. 
To,  restore  this  elasticity  and  to  rest  the  foot,  the  following  rule 
should  always,  when  possible,  be  observed: 

After  shoes  are  removed,  the  horse  should,  if  prac- 
ticable, be  left  barefoot  for  twenty-four  to  forty-eight 
hours. 

Proper  use,  proper  feeding,  and  proper  shoeing  understood, 
no  practice  will  prolong  the  period  of  usefulness  of  a  horse,  or 
do  as  much  to  prevent  lameness,  as  this  one. 

Any  stableman  of  intelligence  can  be  shown  in  an  hour 
how  to  take  off  shoes  properly.  It  is  an  easy  matter,  the  day 
before  a  horse  is  to  be  shod,  for  the  stableman  to  take  off  his 
shoes  and  pinch  off  the  surplus  wall.  Even  if  he  must  be  shod 
the  next  morning,  the  rest  over  night  will  do  him  much  good. 

Before  removing  the  old  shoe,  each  clench  should 
be  carefully  and  fully  raised  (Figure  94). 

The  careful  and  complete  raising  of  each  clench  is  necessary 
to  avoid  injury  to  the  crust.  If  the  clench  is  not  raised,  a  part 
of  the  crust  will  be  torn  away  as  the  nail  is  drawn,  and  the  wall 
weakened  by  so  much. 

After  raising  the  clenches,  the  blacksmith  next  loosens  the 
shoe  with  the  pincers,  beginning  at  the  heel.  When  all  the  nails 
but  the  front  one  on  one  side  are  loosened,  he  begins  at  the  other 
heel,  working  towards  the  toe. again.  Having  loosened  all  the 
nails  but  the  front  ones,  he  seizes  the  shoe  at  one  of  these  nails 
and  pries  towards  the  heel.  If  the  blacksmith  finds  the  shoe 
coming  off  "hard' '  he  should  examine  it  to  see  that  two  or  more 
of  the  nails  have  not  been  driven  obliquely,  in  which  case  there 


144 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOOY 


is  danger  of  pulling  out  a  wedge-shaped  portion  of  the  crust. 
In  such  a  case  the  nails  must  be  pulled  separately. 

The  seat  of  the  newly-set  shoe  is  on  the  wall  at  the  level  of 
the  sole,  bearing  slightly  on  the  sole.  This  surface  must  be  pre- 
pared most  carefully  for  the  shoe  by  levelling  it  off  so  that  it  is  a 
perfect  plane  and  at 
right  angles  to  the 
axis  of  the  foot.  In 
lowering  the  wall  the 
following  rule  should 
be  strictly  adhered  to : 

The  wall  to  be  low- 
ered to  the  level  of 
the  sole  with  the 
pincers,  never  with 
a  knife. 

A  line  can  be  follow- 
ed better  and  easier 
with  cutting  pincers 
than  with  a  knife. 
More  than  that,  the 
proper  use  of  .the  pin- 
cers insures  that  the 
wall  will  be  brought 
down  evenly  to  the 
sole  all  around. 

In  the  mechanical  part  of  the  shoeing  it  is  of  the  highest  de- 
gree important  that  the  shoe  be  put  on  so  that  the  foot  will  rest 
squarely  on  the  ground,  and  also  that  the  normal  height  at  heel 
and  toe  be  maintained.  The  blacksmith,  after  he  has  levelled 
the  foot  to  the  sole  all  around,  should  put  the  foot  on  the  floor 
and  verify  its  bearing  before  going  further.  He  should  also 
carefully  observe  any  unusual  thing  in  the  conformation  of 
the  foot. 


Figure  94. — Clenches  Raised. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  145 

Rasp  the  wall  down  level  with  the  sole. 

This  is  to  remove  the  irregularities  left  by  the  pincers,  and 
insure  for  the  shoe  a  bearing  surface  on  both  sole  and  wall. 
When  the  surface  has  been  made  level,  blunt  the  sharp  outer 
edge  of  the  crust  with  the  rasp. 

It  has  been  advocated  that  the  elasticity  of  the  horse's  foot 
is  increased  by  cutting  away  the  bars— "  opening  out  the  heels," 
it  is  called.  This  practice  is  common  enough  to  make  necessary 
the  following  rule: 

The  bars  are  not  to  be  cut  away. 

The  bars  are  Nature's  support  against  contraction  of  the 
heels  and  must  on  no  account  be  cut  away.  Nor  must  the  sole 
in  the  space  between  the  bars  and  the  wall  be  cut  away.  This 
filling-in  of  the  interspace  acts  as  a  support  to  the  bars  and  wall 
against  contraction  of  the  heels.  The  practice  of  opening  the 
heels  cannot  be  too  severely  condemned. 

The  frog,  if  healthy,  is  not  to  be  pared  or  even 
trimmed. 

The  frog,  like  the  sole,  requires  only  to  be  let  alone.  It  is 
Nature's  pad,  or  cushion,  to  lessen  concussion  in  the  upper  struct- 
ures when  the  foot  comes  to  the  ground.  It  can  never  grow 
too  big.  It  thrives  on  concussion.  If  pared,  and  thereby  de- 
prived of  use,  it  dwindles  away. 

The  frog,  when  well  developed,  also  acts  as  a  stay  against 
slipping.  A  good  sound  frog  is  a  better  stay  than  calks.  If 
the  frog  has  become  injured  and  is  ragged,  the  ragged  parts  only 
should  be  carefully  cut  away. 

Do  not  burn  out  a  seat  for  the  shoe  with  a  hot  shoe. 

The  seat  of  the  shoe  may  be  lightly  touched  with  the  hot 
shoe  to  mark  its  inequalities.  The  marked  portions  should  then 
be  rasped  down.  To  burn  out  a  seat  for  the  shoe  dries  up  the 
horn  of  sole  and  wall,  kills  living  cells  that  are  necessary  to  the 
strength  of  the  hoof,  and  causes  the  sole  to  dry  out  and  shrink 
—11— 


146 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


away  from  the  shoe.     It  is  a  bad  practice  that  is  resorted  to 
only  by  lazy  horseshoers.     It  should  not  be  tolerated. 

Figure  95  shows  a  foot  that  has  been  prepared  for  its  shoe 
in  a  very  common  way,  but  in  a  way  that  violates  the  last  three 
principles.  The  sole 
has  been  pared  out, 
the  wall  cut  down  too 
much,  the  frog  trim- 
med, the  bars  cut 
away,  and,  to  com- 
plete the  iniquity,  the 
seat  for  the  new  shoe 
has  been  burned  out. 

All  of  these  abuses 
are  easy  of  detection, 
except  the  last,  by  a 
very  casual  inspection 
of  the  shod  horse. 

All  shoes  should 
be  flat  to  the  sole, 
not  seated  in. 

Make  the  shoe  to 
fit  the  foot,  neither 
longer  nor  smaller  nor 
wider  than  the  wall, 
except  at  the  heels, 
where  it  may  be  not 
to  exceed  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  wider 
than  the  crust.  This 
last  provision  is  to  cause  the  shoe  to  keep  its  bearing  as  the 
growth  of  the  wall  brings  it  forward. 

Five  nails  are  sufficient,  three  on  the  outside  and  two 
on  the  inside. 


Figure  95. 
Sole  pared  out,  bars  cut  away,  seat  for 
shoe  burned  in  with  a  hot  shoe. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  *  147 

The  front  nail  on  each  side  should  be  in  the  anterior  portion 
of  the  quarter,  and  the  other  nails  should  equally  divide  the 
distance  to  the  heels.     This  rule  is  a  flexible  one. 

When  a  nail  has  been  driven,  the  point  should  immediately 
be  twisted  off,  to  prevent  possible  blemishes  to  the  other  feet  in 
case  the  horse  should  struggle.  After  the  nails  are  all  driven, 
the  clenches  are  turned  slightly  and  evened  with  the  rasp,  to 
make  them  the  same  length.  A  slight  groove  is  then  made  on 
the  under  side  of  the  clenches  in  the  horn  and  the  clenches  bent 
into  the  groove. 

Clenches  should  not  be  rasped  after  being  turned 
down. 

They  should  be  carefully  flattened  with  the  hammer.  Any 
filing,  in  addition  to  injuring  the  enamel,  lessens  the  power 
of  holding. 

Except  to  make  this  groove  for  the  clenches,  the  rasp  should 
not  be  used  on  the  outside  wall  of  the  foot.  Roughness  in  the 
clenches  can  be  smoothed  by  light  taps  of  the  hammer.  Rasping 
the  outside  of  the  hoof  removes  the  enamel  that  is  there  to  keep 
the  foot  from  losing  its  moisture  by  evaporation;  in  the  subse- 
quent drying  and  shrinking  the  hoof  is  often  cracked. 

The  shoe  should  be  neither  too  large  nor  too  small,  but 
should  fit  the  outside  of  the  hoof  perfectly  in  front  of  the  rear- 
most nails.  In  rear  of  these  nails  the  shoe  should  gradually 
broaden,  to  keep  the  ends  from  bearing  on  the  seat  of  corn  as 
the  shoe  is  brought  forward,  and  to  leave  room  for  cleaning  the 
hoof  between  the  frog  and  wall. 

I£  the  shoe  is  too  small — the  most  common  fault — the  black- 
smith will  trim  the  .foot  down  to  fit  the  shoe,  a  process  called 
dumping  and  thereby  greatly  weaken  the  wall.  The  nails, 
too,  are  driven  too  near  the  sensitive  tissues,  and  there  is  danger 
of  pricking.  Even  if  the  nails  do  not  actually  reach  the  sen- 
sitive lamina?,  if  driven  too  near  it,  they  will,  by  their  pressure, 


U8 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


irritate  the  laminae  and  cause  lameness.     Such  a  foot  is  said 
to  be  nailbound. 

The  other  extreme — having  the  shoe  too  large — is  also  liable 
to  be  injurious,  because  of  the  danger  that  the  shoe  may  be 
•stepped  on,  or 
otherwise 
dragged  o  ff , 
or  that  the 
horse  may 
stumble. 

Be  c  o  n- 
stantly  o  n 
the  watch 
for  loose 
shoes,  and 
have  them 
properly  re- 
moved a  s 
soon  as  dis- 
covered. 

If  the  shoe 
is  cast,  nails 
are  apt  to  be 
left  in  the  hoof 
or  a  portion 
o  f  the  hoof 
may  be  pulled 
off  with  the 
shoe.   When  a 

shoe  is  removed,  have  the  other  one  of  its  pair,  front  or  rear, 
removed  also,  unless  the  shoe  can  be  soon  replaced.     The  horse 
travels  and  walks  better  when  his  legs  are  the  same  length. 
What  to  look  for  in  a  newly-shod  horse : 
I  f     No  mark  of  the  rasp  on  the  hoof. 


Figure  96. 

Shoe  too  small;  wall  and  clenches  rasped  away. 

Note  marks  of  the  rasp. 


ELEMEXTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


1-19 


2.  That  the  sole  has  not  been  pared  out. 

3.  That  the  frog,  unless  it  was  ragged,  has  not  been 

trimmed. 

4.  That  the  bars  have  not  been  cut  away. 

5.  That  the  seat  of  the  shoe  has  not  been  burned  out. 

6.  That  the  nails  have  been  put  in  as  regularly  as 

the  state  of  the  crust  will  admit  of. 


7. 


8. 

9. 
0. 


Figure  97. 
Shoe  too  large;  nails  brought  out  too  low  down. 

That  the  nails  have  been  brought  out  one  inch 
above  the  shoe,  in  the  normal  foot.  In  flat 
feet  they  should  appear  a  little  less  than  an 
inch  from  the  shoe. 

That  the  shoes  are  neither  larger  nor  smaller 
than  the  wall,  nor  longer  than  the  hoof. 

That  the  feet  are  the  same  length. 

That  the  nails  fit  the  nail-holes  accurately. 

That  the  clenches  have  not  been  rasped  after 
being  turned  down. 


150  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

The  following  extract  from  the  article  by  John  W.  Adams, 
A.B.,  V.M.D.,  found  on  pages  565-569,  "  Diseases  of  the  Horse," 
gives  an  outline  of  the  properties  of  horseshoes,  and  the  special 
peculiarities  of  the  chief  classes  of  shoes : 

"The  shoe  is  an  artificial  base  of  support,  by  no  means  ideal, 
because  it  interferes,  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  with  the  physiology 
of  the  foot,  but  indispensable,  except  for  horses  at  slow  work  on  soft 
ground.  Since  a  proper  surface  of  support  is  of  the  greatest  import- 
ance in  preserving  the  health  of  the  feet  and  legs,  it  is  necessary  to 
consider  the  various  forms  of  shoes  best  adapted  to  the  different  forms 
of  hoofs.  Certain  properties  are  common  to  all  shoes  and  may  be 
considered  first.  They  are  form,  width,  thickness,  length,  surfaces, 
borders,  fullering,  nail-holes,  and  clips. 

"  Form. — Every  shoe  should  have  the  form  of  the  hoof  for  which 
it  is  intended,  provided  the  hoof  retains  its  proper  shape;  but  for  every 
hoof  that  has  undergone  change  of  form  we  must  endeavor  to  give 
the  shoe  that  form  which  the  foot  originally  possessed.  Front  shoes 
and  hind  shoes,  rights  and  lefts,  should  be  distinctly  different  and 
easily  distinguishable. 

"  Width. — All  shoes  should  be  wider  at  the  toe  than  at  the  ends 
of  the  branches.  The  average  width  should  be  about  double  the 
thickness  of  the  wall  at  the  toe. 

"  Thickness. — The  thickness  should  be  sufficient  to  make  the  shoe 
last  about  four  weeks  and  should  be  uniform,  except  in  special  cases. 

"  Length. — This  will  depend  upon  the  obliquity  of  the  hoof, 
viewed  in  profile.  The  acute-angled  hoof  has  long  over-hanging  heels, 
and  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  weight  borne  by  the  leg  falls  in 
the  posterior  half  of  the  hoof.  For  such  a  hoof  the  branches  of  the 
shoe  should  extend  back  of  the  buttresses  to  a  distance  nearly  double 
the  thickness  of  the  shoe.  For  a  hoof  of  the  regular  form,  the  branches 
should  project  an  amount  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  shoe.  In  a 
stumpy  hoof,  the  shoe  need  not  project  more  than  one-eighth  of  an 
inch.  In  all  cases  the  shoe  should  cover  the  entire  'bearing  surface' 
of  the  wall. 

"  Surfaces. — The  surface  that  is  turned  toward  the  hoof  is  known 
as  the  '  upper,'  or  '  hoof  surface,'  of  the  shoe.  That  part  of  the  hoof 
surface  which  is  in  actual  contact  with  the  horn  is  called  the  '  bearing 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  151 

surface'  of  the  shoe.  The  'bearing  surface'  should  be  perfectly  hor- 
izontal from  side  to  side  and  wide  enough  to  support  the  full  thick- 
ness of  the  wall,  the  white  line,  and  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  of  the 
margin  of  the  sole.  The  'bearing  surface'  should  also  be  perfectly 
flat,  except  that  it  may  be  turned  up  at  the  toe.  The  surface  be- 
tween the  'bearing  surface'  and  the  inner  edge  of  the  shoe  is  often 
beaten  down  or  concaved  to  prevent  pressure  too  far  inward  upon  the 
sole.  This  'concaving,'  or  'seating,'  should  be  deeper  or  shallower  as 
the  horny  sole  is  less  or  more  concave.  As  a  rule,  strongly  'cupped' 
soles  require  no  concaving  (hind  hoof s„  narrow  fore  hoofs). 

"  Borders. — The  entire  outer  border  should  be  beveled  under  the 
foot.  Such  a  shoe  is  not  so  readily  loosened,  nor  is  it  so  apt  to  lead 
to  interfering. 

"  Fullering. — This  is  a  groove  in  the  ground  surface  of  the  shoe. 
It  should  pass  through  two-thirds  of  the  thickness  of  the  shoe,  be 
clean,  and  of  uniform  width.  It  is  of  advantage  in  that  it  makes 
the  shoe  lighter  in  proportion  to  its  width,  and,  by  making  the  ground 
surface  somewhat  rough,  tends  to  prevent  slipping. 

"  Nail- Holes. — The  shoe  must  be  so  punched  that  the  nail -holes 
will  fall  directly  on  the  white  line.  They  should  be  confined  to  the 
fore  half  of  front  shoes,  but  may  occupy  the  anterior  two-thirds  of 
hind  shoes.  For  a  medium-weight  shoe  three  nail-holes  in  each 
branch  are  sufficient,  but  for  heavier  shoes,  especially  those  provided 
with  long  calks,  eight  holes  are  about  right,  though  three  on  the  in- 
side and  four  on  the  outside  may  do. 

"  Clips. — These  are  half -circular  ears  drawn  up  from  the  outer 
edge  of  the  shoe,  either  at  the  toe  or  opposite  the  side  wall.  The 
height  of  a  clip  should  equal  the  thickness  of  the  shoe,  though  they 
should  be  even  higher  on  hind  shoes  and  when  a  leather  sole  is  in- 
terposed between  sole  and  hoof.  Clips  secure  the  shoe  against  shifting. 
A  side  clip  should  always  be  drawn  up  on  that  branch  of  the  shoe  that 
first  meets  the  ground  in  locomotion. 


152  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


"SPECIAL   PECULIARITIES  OF   THE  CHIEF  CLASSES 
OF   SHOES. 

"  1.  A  shoe  for  a  regular  hoof  fits  when  its  outer  border  follows 
the  wall  closely  in  the  region  of  the  nail-holes,  and  from  the  last  nail 
to  the  end  of  the  branch  gradually  projects  beyond  the  surface  of  the 
wall  to  an  eighth  of  an  inch,  and  extends  back  of  the  buttresses  an 
amount  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  shoe.  The  shoe  must  be  straight, 
firm,  air-tight,  its  nail-holes  directly  over  the  white  line,  and  its 
branches  far  enough  from  the  branches  of  the  frog  to  permit  the 
passage  of  a  foot-pick.     Branches  of  the  shoe  must  be  of  equal  length. 

"  In  fitting  a  shoe  to  a  hoof  of  regular  form,  we  follow  the  form 
of  the  hoof;  but  in  base-wide  and  in  base-narrow  hoofs,  which  are  of 
irregular  form,  we  must  pay  attention  not  only  to  the  form  of  the 
hoof,  but  also  to  the  direction  of  the  pasterns  and  the  consequent  dis- 
tribution of  weight  on  the  hoof,  because  where  the  most  weight  falls 
the  surface  of  support  of  the  foot  must  be  widened,  and  where  the 
least  weight  falls  (opposite  side  of  the  hoof)  the  surface  of  support 
should  be  narrowed.  In  this  way  the  improper  distribution  of  weight 
within  the  hoof  is  evenly  distributed  over  the  surface  of  support. 

"2.  A  shoe  for  a  base-wide  hoof  should  be  fitted  full  on  the 
inner  side  of  the  foot  and  fitted  close  on  the  outer  side,  because  the 
inner  side  bears  the  most  weight.  The  nails  in  the  outer  branch  are 
placed  well  back,  but  in  the  inner  branch  are  crowded  forward  toward 
the  toe. 

"3.  A  shoe  for  a  base-narrow  hoof  should  be  just  the  reverse  of 
the  preceding.  The  outer  branch  should  be  somewhat  longer  than 
the  inner. 

"4.  A  shoe  for  an  acute-angled  hoof  should  be  long  in  the  branch- 
es, because  most  of  the  weight  falls  in  the  posterior  half  of  the  foot. 
The  support  in  front  should  be  diminished  either  by  turning  the  shoe 
up  at  the  toe  or  by  beveling  it  under  the  toe. 

"5.  A  shoe  for  a  stumpy  hoof  should  be  short  in  the  branches, 
and,  for  pronounced  cases,  should  increase  the  support  of  the  toe , 
where  the  most  of  the  weight  falls,  by  being  bevelled  downward 
and  forward. 

"  In  many  cases,  especially  in  draft-horses,  where  the  hoofs  stand 
very  close  together,  the  coronet  of  the  outer  quarter  is  found  to  stand 
out  beyond  the  lower  border  of  the  quarter.     In  such  cases  the  outer 


ELEMENTS    OF    EIPPOLOGY.  153 

branch  of  the  shoe  from  the  last  nail  back  must  be  fitted  so  full  that 
an  imaginary  perpendicular  dropped  from  the  coronet  will  just  meet 
the  outer  border  of  the  shoe.  The  inner  branch,  on  the  other  hand, 
must  be  fitted  as  'close'  as  possible.  The  principal  thought  should  be 
to  set  the  new  shoe  further  toward  the  more  strongly-worn  side. 
Such  a  practice  will  render  unnecessary  the  widespread  and  popular 
fad  of  giving  the  outer  quarter  and  heel-calk  of  hind  shoes  an  extreme 
outward  bend.  Care  should  be  taken,  however,  that  in  fitting  the 
shoe  '  full '  at  the  quarter  the  bearing  surface  of  the  hoof  at  the  quarter 
be  not  left  unsupported  or  incompletely  covered,  to  be  pinched  and 
squeezed  inward  against  the  frog.  This  will  be  obviated  by  making 
the  outer  branch  of  the  shoe  sufficiently  wide  and  punching  it  so  coarse 
that  the  nails  will  Fail  upon  the  white  line  " 


.5    '-- 

C    X 


«  -c 


a 
H 

I 

g  1  - 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  155 


CHAPTER   XIII 


THE  HEART,  LUNGS,  AND  AIR-PASSAGES. 

The  heart  is  the  organ  by  which  the  blood  is  circulated 
through  the  body.  It  hangs  a  little  to  the  left  of  the  center  of 
the  forward  part  of  the  chest,  suspended  from  the  vertebrae  of 
the  withers,  the  small  end  downwards.  Its  average  weight  is 
from  seven  to  eight  pounds. 

The  heart  is  of  interest  to  the  amateur  horseman  because  of 
the  influence  disease  has  on  its  action.  In  health,  the  heart  of 
the  ordinary  horse  pulsates  from  thirty-five  to  forty  times  a 
minute;  the  thoroughbred  horse,  from  forty  to  forty-five.  These 
pulsations  of  the  heart  send  the  blood  through  the  arterial 
system  in  a  series  of  waves,  each  wave  corresponding  to  one 
pulsation  of  the  heart.  These  waves  constitute  what  is  called 
the  pulse,  and  it  is  by  counting  the  pulse  and  by  observation  of 
the  relative  strength  and  frequency  of  the  waves  of  the  pulse 
that  the  heart-action  of  the  horse  is  verified. 

It  must  be  understood  that  the  number  of  pulsations  above 
noted  is  for  the  animal  at  rest,  or  when  not  undergoing  any 
special  exertion.  The  pulse  will  become  higher  during  exertion, 
the  amount  of  the  increase  depending  on  the  extent  of  the  ex- 
ertion. The  pulse  will  be  higher  in  horses  kept  in  fine  condition, 
in  warm  stables,  and  fed  on  selected  forage,  than  in  animals 
more  roughly  stabled  and  fed.  It  is  higher  in  young  horses 
than  in  old  ones.  Fear  or  excitement  also  tend  to  augment 
the  pulse. 

When  the  animal  is  at  rest,  a  pulse  of  from  50  to  55  indi- 
cates a  feverish  condition,  the  cause  of  which  should  be  inves- 
tigated. From  70  to  75  beats  a  minute  indicates  a  very  serious 
condition,  demanding  prompt  and  energetic  action. 


156  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

The  arteries,  where  the  pulse  is  felt,  are  the  deep-seated 
blood-vessels;  the  veins  lie  nearer  to  the  surface.  There  are 
several  places  where  the  larger  arteries  come  close  enough  to 
the  skin  to  be  felt,  but  the  best  place  to  take  the  pulse  is  on  the 
under  side  of  the  angle  of  the  under  jaw,  where  an  artery  bends 
around  the  bone.  The  pulse  can  also  be  counted  by  placing 
the  hand  against  the  side. 

"The  temperature  of  the  horse  is  determined  roughly  by 
placing  the  fingers  in  the  mouth  or  between  the  thighs,  or  by 
allowing  the  horse  to  exhale  against  the  cheek  or  back  of  the 
hand.  In  accurate  examination,  however,  these  means  of  de- 
termining temperature  are  not  relied  upon,  but  recourse  is  had 
to  the  use  of  the  thermometer.  The  thermometer  used  for 
taking  the  temperature  of  a  horse  is  a  self-registering  clinical 
thermometer,  similar  to  that  used  by  physicians,  but  larger, 
being  from  five  to  six  inches  long.  The  temperature  of  the 
animal  is  measured  in  the  rectum. 

"The  normal  temperature  of  the  horse  varies  somewhat 
under  different  conditions.  It  is  higher  in  the  young  animal 
than  in  the  old  and  is  higher  in  hot  weather  than  in  cold.  The 
weather  and  exercise  decidedly  influence  the  temperature,  physi- 
ologically. The  normal  temperature  varies  from  99.5  to  101 
degrees  Fahrenheit.  If  the  temperature  rises  to  101.5,  the  horse 
is  said  to  have  a  low  fever;  if  the  temperature  reaches  104,  the 
fever  is  moderate;  and  if  it  reaches  106,  it  is  high.  Above  this 
point  it  is  regarded  as  very  high.  In  some  diseases  the  tem- 
perature goes  as  high  as  108  or  110  degrees.  In  the  ordinary  in- 
fectious diseases  it  does  not  often  exceed  106.  A  temperature 
of  107.5  degrees  and  above  is  very  dangerous,  and  must  be 
reduced  promptly  if  the  horse  is  to  be  saved."* 

"The  lungs  are  the  essential  organs  of  respiration.  They 
consist  of  two  (right  and  left)  spongy  masses,  commonly  called 

*Page  17,  "Diseases  of  the  Horse,"  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 
1903. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  157 

the  lights,  situated  entirely  within  the  thoracic  cavity.  On 
account  of  the  space  taken  up  by  the  heart,  the  left  lung  is  the 
smaller.  Externally,  they  are  completely  covered  by  the  pleura. 
The  structure  of  the  lung  consists  of  a  light,  soft,  but  very 
strong  and  remarkably  elastic  tissue,  which  can  only  be  torn 
with  difficulty.  Each  lung  is  divided  into  a  certain  number  of 
lobes,  which  are  subdivided  into  numberless  lobules  (little  lobes). 
A  little  bronchial  tube  terminates  in  every  one  of  these  lobules. 
The  little  tube  then  divides  into  minute  branches,  which  open 
into  the  air-cells  of  the  lungs.  The  air-cells  are  little  sacs,  having 
a  diameter  varying  from  one-seventieth  to  one-two-hundredth 
of  an  inch;  they  have  but  one  opening,  the  communication  with 
the  branches  of  the  little  bronchial  tubes.  Small  blood-vessels 
ramify  in  the  walls  of  the  air-cells.  The  air-cells  are  the  con- 
summation of  the  intricate  structures  forming  the  respiratory 
apparatus.  They  are  of  prime  importance,  all  the  rest  being 
complementary.  It  is  here  that  the  exchange  of  gases  takes 
place.  As  before  stated,  the  walls  of  the  cells  are  very  thin; 
so  also  are  the  walls  of  the  blood-vessels.  Through  these  walls 
escapes  from  the  blood  the  carbonic  acid  gas  that  has  been  ab- 
sorbed by  the  blood  in  its  circulation  through  the  different  parts 
of  the  body;  and  through  these  walls  is  absorbed,  by  the  blood 
from  the  air  in  the  air-cells,  the  oxygen-gas,  which  is  the  life- 
giving  element  of  the  atmosphere."* 

The  nasal  passages,  or  nostrils,  unite  above  the  back  of  the 
mouth,  forming  the  pharynx.  The  pharynx  is  a  box-like 
organ,  through  which  the  food  passes  into  the  gullet,  as  well 
as  the  air  into  the  lungs.  The  nostrils  and  mouth  open  into  it 
in  front,  nostrils  above,  and  the  gullet  and  windpipe  lead  from 
it  in  rear,  the  windpipe  below.  To  guard  against  the  introduc- 
tion of  food  into  the  windpipe,  a  large  valve,  2  (Figure  98), 
closes  it,  that  is  hinged  below  and  that  lies,  when  the  horse  is 

*Pages  119  and  120,  "  Diseases  of  the  Horse,"  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  1903. 


158  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

not  eating,  over  the  opening  into  the  mouth.  Food  entering 
the  pharynx  from  the  mouth  pushes  this  valve  into  place  over 
the  windpipe  and  passes  over  it  into  the  gullet.  For  this  reason 
a  horse  always  must  breathe  through  its  nose,  as  air  entering 
the  pharynx  through  the  mouth  has  the  same  effect  as  food  of 
stopping  the  windpipe;  hence  it  is  important  never  to  call  on 
an  animal  for  sudden  or  energetic  action  when  there  are  particles 
of  food  in  his  pharynx  that  may  be  suddenly  drawn  into  his 
lung,  causing  him  to  choke. 

Back  of  this  valve  lies  the  larynx,  containing  the  vocal 
cords;  this  in  turn  opens  into  the  windpipe,  which  separates, 
in  the  chest,  into  two  branches  leading  to  the  right  and  left 
lungs  (Figure  98). 

In  the  lungs  these  branches  divide  into  bronchial  tubes 
(Figure  98),  which,  by  repeated  ramifications,  terminate  in  air- 
cells,  where  the  process  of  purifying  the  blood  takes  place. 
These  air-passages  are  all  lined  with  mucous  membrane,  which 
secretes  a  slimy  fluid  called  mucous,  which,  when  discharged 
from  the  nostrils,  is  called  phlegm. 

When,  for  any  reason,  this  membrane  becomes  acutely  in- 
flamed, a  disease  exists,  which  is  variously  named,  depending 
upon  its  location  in  the  air-passages. 

In  the  nostrils  or  pharynx  it  is  called  cold  in  the  head;  in 
the  larynx  and  windpipe,  laryngitis,  or  sore  throat;  in  the 
branches  of  the  windpipe  and  the  bronchial  tubes,  bronchitis. 
If  the  substance  of  the  lungs  becomes  inflamed,  the  disease  is 
known  as  pneumonia. 

Lining  the  chest  and  covering  the  lungs  are  two  membranes, 
called  the  pleurae.  They  are  fast  to  the  lungs  and  chest,  re- 
spectively, but  are  completely  separated  from  each  other.  A 
lubricant  is  secreted  by  each  that  flows  between  them,  making 
it  easy  for  them  to  slip  on  each  other  as  the  lungs  are  enlarged 
and  3 r.itracted.     If  they  become  inflamed,  the  disease  is  pleu- 


160  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

risy.     Bronchitis,  pleurisy,  and  pneumonia  are  allied  dis- 
eases and  rarely  exist  separately. 

Congestion  of  the  lungs  is  an  engorgement  of  the  capil- 
laries of  the  lungs  with  blood,  caused  by  over-exertion,  or  sudden 
chilling  after  heating  work.  The  lungs  cannot  purify  the  blood 
fast  enough,  and,  unless  the  congestion  is  arrested,  the  horse 
dies  of  suffocation. 

When  a  horse  has  been  driven  or  ridden  very  fast  for  a 
longer  period  than  should  have  been  the  case,  the  severe  strain 
put  upon  the  diaphragm  by  the  extra  exertion  will  cause  violent 
spasmodic  contractions  of  that  muscle.  This  condition  is  called 
thumps,  and  is  similar  in  origin  to  the  familiar  hiccoughs. 
Usually  the  flank  is  shrunken,  and  the  posterior  angle  of  the  ribs 
thrust  outwards.  The  jerky  motion  caused  by  the  spasm  shakes 
the  whole  body.  The  pulse  is  not  accelerated  in  thumps;  it 
often  is  weaker  than  normal.  If  not  relieved,  death  usually 
results. 

If  the  disease  appears  while  the  animal  is  on  the  road,  he 
should  be  stopped  at  once ;  the  saddle  or  harness  should  be  re- 
moved, and  the  body  and  legs  should  be  briskly  rubbed  to  draw 
as  much  of  the  circulation  to  the  skin  as  possible.  As  many 
persons  as  are  available  should  be  put  at  this  work.  When  the 
body  has  become  warm  and  the  spasms  relax,  the  patient  should 
be  warmly  blanketed  and  should  be  put  in  the  nearest  box-stall, 
out  of  drafts.  Two  or  three  days'  careful  nursing  will  usually 
complete  the  convalescence. 

Thumps  attacking  a  horse  on  the  road  is  always  caused 
by  injudicious  use.  Thumps  may  be  followed  by  congestion 
of  the  lungs,  especially  in  the  winter,  or  by  founder  in  the 
summer. 

These  are  all  acute  diseases.  From  repeated  attacks,  the 
membranes  become  thickened  or  their  vitality  becomes  im- 
paired, and  certain  chronic  diseases  result. 


162  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

Thick  wind  is  the  name  for  the  chronically  diseased  and 
thickened  condition  of  the  smaller  bronchial  tubes.  The  amount 
of  blood  that  can  be  purified  is  limited  by  this  disease,  and  the 
horse  shows  distress  and  labors  when  worked  fast  or  hard.  He 
seems  to  struggle  for  his  wind — to  gasp  for  breath.  It  is  not 
accompanied  by  noise,  and  the  inhalations  and  exhalations  recur 
at  equal  intervals.  There  is  no  medical  treatment  for  this  dis- 
ease. If  the  horse  is  very  carefully  fed,  is  not  exercised  at  all 
while  his  stomach  is  full,  and  is  worked  lightly  and  at  slow 
gaits,  he  may  finally  recover  partially,  and  gradually  become 
more  and  more  serviceable. 

Broken  wind  or  heaves  is  caused  either  by  a  rupture  of  the 
air-cells,  or  by  a  partial  paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  the  cells  that 
assist  in  expelling  the  air.  In  this  disease  the  ordinary  action 
of  the  lungs  and  diaphragm  is  not  enough  to  clear  the  lungs, 
and  a  second  contraction  is  necessary. 

The  diaphragm  is  a  dome-shaped  muscle,  rising  from  the 
abdomen  into  the  hollow  of  the  chest.  By  its  muscular  action 
the  lungs  are  squeezed  against  the  ribs  and  the  air  thus  mechan- 
ically pushed  out  of  them.  With  the  withdrawal  of  the  dia- 
phragm the  lungs  expand  and  follow  it,  and  so  fill  themselves 
with  the  fresh  air  that  is  so  necessary  to  the  life  of  the  animal. 
If  the  stomach  is  overloaded  with  coarse  food,  the  diaphragm 
will  be  mechanically  and  constantly  pushed  against  the  lungs, 
and  so  limit  their  powers  of  expansion.  While  this  condition 
exists,  if  the  animal  is  called  on  for  any  extra  effort,  the  lungs 
will  not  respond  to  the  demands  made  on  them  by  the  circula- 
tion, and  the  cell  walls  will  be  ruptured  in  consequence.  When 
the  processes  of  digestion  remove  the  obstruction  to  the  lungs' 
proper  action,  the  evil  will  still  remain.  The  lung-cells  that 
have  been  ruptured  will  leak  air  into  the  lung  tissue  itself,  and 
this  air  is  expelled  with  difficulty.  Horses  living  in  a  dusty  or 
badly- ventilated  stable  are  predisposed  to  heaves.  The  lungs, 
being  constantly  irritated,  become  chronically  inflamed,  and  the 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  163 

muscles  of  the  cell  walls  lose  their  elasticity  or  become  partially 
paralyzed. 

Broken  wind  is  easily  distinguished  from  other  lung 
disease  by  the  double  effort  to  exhale  air,  usually  accom- 
panied by  a  hacking  cough.  The  period  of  exhalation  is  longer 
than  the  period  of  inhalation.  Heaves,  except  in  very  mild, 
recent  cases,  is  incurable,  and  the  horse  is  greatly  disabled  by  it. 

Roaring  is  a  disease  that  is  characterized  by  a  peculiar 
noise  made  by  the  horse  at  inhalation.  The  noise  called  roaring 
may  be  made  by  a  sound  horse  when  excited,  or  when  suddenly 
put  to  exertion  after  a  period  of  idleness,  or  on  account  of  a 
cramped  position  of  the  head  or  neck.  This  noise  is  not  accom- 
panied, in  the  sound  horse,  by  evidences  of  fatigue  and  ina- 
bility to  perform  work,  as  is  the  case  in  the  unsound  horse. 
Chronic  roaring  is  the  result  of  a  paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  the 
larynx  that  control  the  vocal  cords.  This  paralysis  prevents 
them  from  being  opened  sufficiently  wide  to  admit  air  without 
vibrating.  Often  a  horse  maybe  affected  by  the  disease — par- 
alysis of  the  vocal  cord  —  without  the  accompanying  sound. 
This  can  be  detected  by  making  a  sudden  motion  towards  the 
flank  with  the  hand  or  whip,  when  the  unsound  animal  will 
grunt  or  groan.  Roaring  is  very  disabling,  and  can  be  cured 
only  by  a  surgical  operation.  This  operation  consists  in  re- 
removing  the  vocal  cord  that  has  become  uncontrollable. 

Whistling  is  a  variation  of  the  sound  made  by  a  roarer.  A 
horse  with  a  severe  sore  throat  may  make  a  whistling  sound  at 
inhalation.  This  should  not  be  considered  as  evidence  that  he 
is  a  roarer  until  the  sore  throat  is  cured,  when,  if  the  horse  is 
sound,  the  whistling  will  cease.  - 

A  sound  horse  should  breathe  noiselessly  and  easily  in  all 
emergencies.  A  horse  that  makes  any  noise  or  has  any  diffi- 
culty in  its  breathing,  no  matter  how  slight,  should  not  be 
considered  sound. 


164  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPO  LOGY, 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


THE  DIGESTIVE  APPARATUS. 

The  digestive  apparatus  consists  of  the  mouth,  the  gullet, 
the  stomach,  the  large  and  small  intestines,  and  certain 
other  organs,  into  whose  functions  it  is  not  necessary  to  in- 
quire in  so  elementary  a  treatise  as  this  one.  These  organs  ex- 
cept, of  course,  the  mouth  and  a  portion  of  the  gullet,  are  con- 
tained in  the  abdominal  cavity. 

The  food  is  taken  by  the  lips  and  is  worked  back  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  mouth  by  the  lips  and  tongue.  There  it  is 
masticated  by  the  molar  teeth  and  mixed  with  saliva  secreted 
by  the  salivary  glands.  This  is  the  first  process  of  digestion. 
When  the  mouthful  has  been  well  broken  up  and  saturated 
with  saliva,  it  is  passed  back  through  the  pharynx  and  gullet 
to  the  stomach.  This  is  a  small  organ,  having  a  capacity  of 
three  to  three  and  a  half  gallons.  Two-thirds  of  the  lining  of 
the  stomach  is  a  membrane  that  secretes  gastric  juice.  The 
food  is  slowly  mixed  in  the  stomach  with  this  liquid  until  it 
partially  changes  its  character,  and  is  passed  into  the  small  in- 
testine, to  be  there  mixed  with  the  digestive  juices  of  the  liver, 
spleen,  and  other  intestinal  glands,  to  be  transformed  by  the 
chemical  action  of  these  reagents  until  it  is  ready  to  be  absorbed 
into  the  system. 

A  system  of  vessels,  called  lacteals,  and  the  veins,  absorb 
the  nutritive  part  of  the  food  thus  transformed  and  carry  it  to 
a  large  vein  near  the  heart,  where  it  is  poured  into  the  blood. 
This  fluid,  thus  enriched,  is  carried  by  the  circulation  to  all  parts 
of  the  body  to  nourish  it  and  repair  waste  tissues.  The  debris 
of  digestion  is  forced  through  the  large  intestine  and  is  voided 
as  dung. 


166  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

Water  takes  a  different  course.  It  passes  almost  directly 
through  the  stomach  and  small  intestine  to  the  water-sac  or 
caecum,  where  it  is  stored  for  use.  A  portion  is  drawn  off  to  be 
mixed  with  the  blood  to  supply  the  fluids  of  the  system;  the 
rest,  carrying  with  it  certain  salts  necessary  to  be  removed-  from 
the  body,  is  excreted  through  the  kidney^  as  urine. 

The  horse  is  an  animal  requiring  regularity  in  feeding  and 
watering  and  a  very  limited  variety  of  foods  to  be  kept  in  effi- 
cient condition.  The  horse's  stomach  is  very  small;  in  propor- 
tion to  his  bulk,  it  is  only  half  the  size  of  the  human  stomach. 
It  rests  upon  the  large  intestine  and  against  the  diaphragm, 
while  the  small  intestines  lie  further  back  in  the  abdomen,  more 
remote  from  the  direct  action  of  the  diaphragm.  The  walls  of 
the  stomach  are  elastic,  and  permit  it  to  accommodate  itself  to 
the  bulk  of  the  food  that  enters  it. 

The  above  considerations  render  it  imperative  that  a  horse 
should  not  be  called  on  for  severe  work  or  rapid  exercise  imme- 
diately after  eating  a  bulky  meal.  The  stomach,  distended,  in- 
terferes with  the  free  action  of  the  diaphragm,  and  the  latter, 
in  its  efforts  to  increase  the  air  capacity  of  the  lungs,  squeezes 
the  stomach  back  against  the  intestines,  and  so  greatly  impedes 
the  processes  of  digestion. 

Very  fortunately,  digestion  is  a  rapid  process  in  the  horse, 
and  the  stomach  is  called  on  to  do  but  little  of  the  digestion  of 
the  bulkier  foods.  Water  is  retained  in  the  stomach  or  small 
intestines  only  when  it  is  absorbed  by  partially-digested  food. 
This  has  the  effect  of  diluting  the  digestive  fluids,  of  delaying 
the  process  of  digestion,  and  of  mechanically  removing  from  the 
stomach  food  that  is  not  ready  to  be  passed  to  the  intestine.  In 
addition,  the  water  cools  the  stomach  and  its  contents  below 
the  temperature  at  which  it  best  performs  its  functions.  For 
these  reasons  horses  should  not  have  access  to  water  while 
eating,  or  for  an  hour  or  two  after. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  167 

Hay  requires  to  be  thoroughly  chewed  and  mixed  with 
saliva  before  it  can  be  swallowed.  When  it  reaches  the  stomach 
it  is  delayed  there  but  a  short  time,  and  passes  to  the  small  in- 
testine, where  the  greater  part  of  its  digestion  is  performed. 
If  a  horse  is  fed  only  hay,  the  first  portion  of  his  meal  passes 
into  the  intestine  very  soon,  but  the  stomach  retains  the  suc- 
ceeding portions  for  a  longer  time,  and  it  is  several  hours  before 
the  stomach  is  empty.  In  this  way  the  muscles  of  the  stomach 
get  the  necessary  amount  of  exercise  to  keep  them  in  proper 
condition. 

Oats,  however,  and  other  concentrated  foods  are  digested 
almost  entirely  in  the  stomach;  when  they  pass  into  the  in- 
testine much  of  their  bulk  is  rapidly  absorbed  by  the  lacteals, 
and  there  is  little  left  for  the  intestine  to  work  on.  The  result 
is  that  the  horse  is  still  restless  and  hungry.  If  this  one-sided 
ration  is  continually  given  him,  he  will  fall  off  faster  than  he 
would  do  if  fed  hay  alone,  and  this  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  oats 
contain  more  elements  of  nourishment  than  hay  does.  Horses 
given  an  insufficient  amount  of  hay  will  eat  their  bedding,  or 
any  rough  food  they  can  get,  to  satisfy  the  craving  for  intestinal 
exercise.  Poor  hay — that  is  not  musty  or.  dusty — and  wheat, 
rye,  or  barley  straw,  although  they  may  contain  practically  no 
nourishing  qualities,  will  preserve  the  strength  and  health  of  a 
horse  in  a  remarkable  degree.  On  this  account  horses  on  cam- 
paign, or  in  places  where  good  hay  is  hard  to  get,  ought  always 
to  be  provided  with  rough  forage  of  some  sort,  no  matter  how 
poor  in  nourishing  qualities. 

The  normal  processes  of  digestion  must  not  be  interfered 
with,  or  sickness  or  debility  will  result.  A  certain  amount  of 
the  digestion  of  food  is  done  in  the  mouth,  where  the  chemical 
action  of  the  saliva  prepares  the  food  for  the  further  action  of 
the  stomach.  In  order  that  the  saliva  can  reach  every  part  of 
each  mouthful  of  food,  it  must  be  broken  up  by  the  teeth.  This 
process  is  necessarily  done  in  the  case  of  hay,  but  oats  are  al- 


168  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

ready  fine  enough  to  be  swallowed  and  their  smooth  hulls  offer 
no  obstacle  to  that  process.  These  hulls  are  insoluble  in  the 
juices  of  the  stomach,  and,  if  the  oat  grain  has  not  been  crushed 
by  the  teeth,  the  kernel  of  the  grain  passes  through  the  horse 
unchanged.  If  it  is  imperfectly  crushed,  it  will  be  only  partially 
digested  in  the  stomach,  and  will  pass  on  to  the  intestines,  to 
ferment  there  and  to  generate  gases  there  that  will  cause  distress 
and  often  disease. 

Owing  to  the  uniformity  in  diet  and  the  regular  hours  of 
feeding,  labor,  and  rest  of  most  well-kept  horses,  diseases  of  the 
digestive  apparatus  are  comparatively  infrequent  among  that 
class  of  horses.  They  are  the  most  easily  preventable  of  all 
equine  diseases.  Unfortunately,  many  horses  are  not  well  kept, 
and,  as  a  result,  "the  disease  of  the  horse  that  is  most  frequent- 
ly met  with  is  what  is  termed  colic.  This  term  is  applied 
loosely  to  almost  all  diseases  of  the  abdomen  that  are  accom- 
panied by  pain.  If  the  horse  evinces  abdominal  pain,  he  is 
likely  to  be  put  down  as  suffering  with  colic,  no  matter  whether 
the  difficulty  be  a  cramp  of  the  bowel,  an  internal  hernia,  over- 
loading of  the  stomach,  or  a  painful  disease  of  the  bladder  or 
liver. 

"The  general  symptoms  of  abdominal  pain,  and  therefore 
of  colic,  are  restlessness,  cessation  of  whatever  the  horse  is  about, 
lying  down,  looking  around  towards  the  flank,  jerky  switching 
of  the  tail,  stretching  as  if  to  urinate,  frequent  changes  of  posi- 
tion, and  groaning.  In  the  more  intense  forms  the  horse  plunges 
about,  throws  himself  down,  rolls,  assumes  unnatural  positions, 
as  sitting  on  the  haunches,  and  grunts  loudly.  Usually  the  pain 
is  not  constant,  and  during  the  intermissions  the  horse  may  eat 
and  appear  normal.  During  the  period  of  pain,  sweat  is  poured 
out  freely.  Sometimes  the  horse  moves  constantly  in  a  circle. 
The  respirations  are  accelerated,  and  usually  there  is  no  fever." 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  169 

From  the  above  quotation*  it  is  easily  seen  that  grave  er- 
rors might  be  made  in  attempting  to  set  down  a  specific  treat- 
ment for  colic.  The  best  treatment,  for  the  non-professional 
person,  is  to  get  the  patient  free  from  all  harness,  in  a  roomy 
box-stall  with  plenty  of  bedding,  so  that  he  will  not  hurt  himself 
in  his  spasms  of  pain— and  send  for  a  veterinary  surgeon. 

Indigestion,  or  catarrh  of  the  stomach  or  intestines, 
is  a  much  more  common  disease  than  colic,  but  it  usually  does 
not  exhibit  such  violent  symptoms.  The  mucous  membrane  is 
the  general  lining  membrane  of  the  digestive  and  respiratory 
apparatus.  Inflammation  of  this  membrane  impairs  the  di- 
gestive ability  of  the  organs  inflamed,  and  the  animal  suffers  a 
loss  of  vitality  in  direct  proportion  to  the  extent  of  the  disease. 
The  symptoms  of  the  disease  are  an  irregular  and  depraved  ap- 
petite and  a  loss  of  condition.  The  animal  may  show  colicky 
symptoms  in  extreme  cases.  The  bowels  are  irregular,  and  the 
dung  contains  much  of  the  horse's  food  that  is  unchanged  by  its 
passage  through  the  animal's  body.  The  horse's  skin  seems 
very  tightly  stretched,  and  the  abdomen  is  "  tucked  up." 

Indigestion  is  due  to  numerous  causes;  anything  that  ir- 
ritates the  mucous  membrane  may  cause  it!  Feeding  improper 
food,  bad  teeth,  causing  imperfect  mastication,  working  a  horse 
immediately  after  eating — all  are  prolific  causes  of  indigestion.! 

Lampas,  the  undue  swelling  of  the  membrane  covering 
the  forward  part  of  the  roof  of  the  horse's  mouth,  is  more  an 
indication  of  disease  than  a  disease.  Treatment  of  the  swelling 
itself  does  little  good.  The  cause  is  usually  with  the  horse's 
diet  or  digestion.  The  old  practice  was  to  burn  the  swellings 
with  a  red-hot  iron;  such  a  treatment  simply  aggravates  the 

*Page  50,  "  Diseases  of  the  Horse,"  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 
1903. 

fThis  disease  is,  except  in  cases  where  its  origin  is  hereditary, 
one  that  should  be  prevented.  It  will  be  discussed  more  at  length 
under  the  head  of  "  Preventable  Diseases." 


170  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

disease  and  adds  to  the  pain.  It  should  never  be  allowed. 
Some  veterinarians  still  advocate  cutting  the  roof  of  the  mouth, 
believing  that  a  little  local  blood-letting  will  relieve  it.  As  the 
cause  of  the  disease  is  elsewhere,  a  better  practice  is  to  try  to 
find  it  and  correct  it.  This  is  more  the  work  of  the  professional 
than  of  the  amateur.  The  existence  of  lampas  does  not  neces- 
sarily indicate  a  serious  condition.  A  day  or  two  of  rest  and  a 
few  bran-mashes  will  usually  effect  a  cure. 

It  is  hardly  ever  advisable  for  the  amateur  to  attempt  to 
treat  diseases  of  the  vital  or  digestive  organs.  He  will  more 
often  injure  than  help  the  animal.  Rest,  good  food,  and  san- 
itary surroundings  are  far  better  than  drugs  in  the  hands  of  men 
not  thoroughly  posted  on  their  properties  and  effects. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPO  LOGY.  171 


CHAPTER  XV. 


STABLE   MANAGEMENT. 

The  term  "stable  management"  includes  the  art  of 
proper  stabling,  sanitary  care,  feeding,  watering,  groom- 
ing, and  nursing  of  horses. 

Stabling  and  Sanitary  Care. — The  first  requisite  for  a 
stable  is  to  provide  shelter  from  inclement  weather.  In  far  too 
many  stables  this  seems  to  be  the  only  object  in  view.  Of 
almost  equal  importance  to  the  item  of  shelter,  for  the  robust 
health  of  the  occupants,  are  ventilation,  dryness,  and  cleanliness. 

Economy  of  air-space  is  always  sought  for  in  stables.  The 
horses  are  kept  in  stalls  that  usually  are  only  large  enough  for 
the  animal  to  stand  or  lie  in.  All  available  space  in  the  stable 
is  used  for  passageways  and  for  storage  of  forage  and  equipment 
of  all  sorts;  no  space  is  wasted.  That  horse  is  lucky  in  a  large 
stable  who  has  as  much  air-space  as  the  man  who  grooms  him 
has  in  his  quarters,  although  six  or  seven  times  his  weight.* 

It  is,  therefore,  of  the  greatest  importance  that  ample  fa- 
cilities for  ventilation  exist. 

A  horse  needs  shelter  to  best  preserve  his  strength, 
but  he  does  not  need  his  shelter  heated  artificially. 

In  order  to  keep  horses'  coats  short  and  glossy  in  the  winter, 
owners  generally  blanket  them.  Many,  in  addition,  heat  their 
stables.  The  latter  is,  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States,  un- 
necessary;   but,  as  it  is  much  more  comfortable  for  the  stable- 

*Three  thousand  cubic  feet  of  ventilated  air-space  per  horse  is 
recommended  as  necessary  to  preserve  his  vigor  unimpaired,  according 
to  General  Fitzwygram.  He  adds  that,  since  horses  are  not  so  sus- 
ceptible to  draughts  and  cold  as  men  are,  by  ample  ventilating  ar- 
rangements this  demand  for  air-space  may  be  considerably  decreased. 


172  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

men  to  work  in  a  warm  stable,  they  persuade  their  employers 
that  the  horses  need  it,  thereby  sacrificing  the  health  of  their 
charges  to  their  own  comfort. 

Horses  that  are  blanketed  in  warm  stables  must,  when 
they  are  taken  out,  be  kept  moving  or  warmly  clothed.  Other- 
wise there  is,  in  the  winter,  grave  danger  of  pneumonia,  lung 
fever,  or  other  similar  diseases,  and,  in  the  summer,  of  founder. 

Proper  grooming  of  horses  kept  blanketed  in  cold 
stables  will  keep  their  coats  in  order.  They  will  be  more 
willing  to  work  and  less  liable  to  suffer  from  the  effects  of  standing 
outside  in  the  cold,  when  the  business  or  pleasure  of  their  owners 
demands  it.  Veterinary  bills  will  be  kept  down,  and  the  only 
persons  to  find  fault  with  the  arrangement  will  be  the  men  who 
have  to  tend  them. 

Insist,  therefore,  on  an  ample  supply  of  fresh  air  in  the 
stable.  Insist  also  that  the  fresh  air  entering  the  stables  does 
not  produce  direct  draughts  on  the  horses.  The  currents  of 
entering  air  should  be  diffused  by  suitable  mechanical  arrange- 
ments. 

In  damp,  cold  climates,  valuable  horses  that  justify  the 
expenditure  are  benefited  by  having  open  fire-places  in  their 
stables  to  keep  them  dry  and  to  assist  in  ventilation.  Steam 
or  hot  water  heating  arrangements  should  not  be  used  to  heat 
the  stalls. 

Dryness  should  be  insisted  on  in  stables. 

This  can  only  be  secured  in  most  climates  by  building  the 
stables  in  well-drained  situations,  open  to  the  air  and  sunlight. 

Cleanliness  can  be  secured  only  by  constant  super- 
vision. 

Cleanliness  and  dryness  go  hand  in  hand.  A  horse  drinks 
about  eight  gallons  of  water  a  day.  This  water  is  used:  first, 
to  maintain  the  fluidity  of  the  blood  and  other  liquids,  the 
moisture  of  the  tissues,  and  to  replace  that  lost  by  perspiration; 
second,  to  moisten  the  food  and  prepare  it  for  digestion;  third, 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  173 

acting  as  a  solvent  for  certain  noxious  salts,  developed  in  the 
nourishment  and  maintenance  of  the  body,  to  excrete  the 
solution  as  urine. 

Much  of  the  daily  allowance  of  water  is  left  on  the  stable 
floor  by  the  horse.  If  he  is  well  bedded,  the  bedding  absorbs 
it.  If  the  floor  of  his  stall  is  of  clay,  unless  the  most  perfect 
care  is  taken  of  it,  he  will  mix  clay  and  urine  and  manure  to- 
gether into  foul  mud,  an  excellent  culture  for  disease  germs  and 
a  still  for  the  manufacture  of  ammonia.  If  the  floor  is  of  wood, — 
a  very  poor  floor,  by  the  way, — the  urine  soaks  into  it,  and, 
unless  perfectly  drained,  renders  it  very  unsanitary.  If  of  brick 
or  stone,  the  drainage  can  be  easily  maintained  if  the  floor  is 
well  made  and  the  gutters  kept  open. 

In  any  case,  to  insure  both  cleanliness  and  dryness, 
all  the  bedding  must  be  taken  out  of  the  stall  in  the  morn- 
ing and  the  stall  cleaned.  Such  of  the  bedding  as  has  be- 
come urine-soaked  must  be  thrown  away  with  the  manure  and 
the  rest  exposed  to  the  sun  and  air  and  thoroughly  dried  before 
it  is  put  back.  The  stable  should  be  opened  and  well  aired,  the 
mangers  cleaned,  and  the  dust  swept  up  and  carried  out. 

All  persons  having  animals  in  their  charge  should 
frequently  inspect  their  stables  early  in  the  morning,  to 
test  the  quality  of  the  air  in  them  and  to  see  that  their 
orders  respecting  ventilation  have  been  carried  out.  They 
should  inspect  them  daily  at  the  hour  designated  to  have  the 
bedding  aired,  to  see  that  everything  is  scrupulously  cleaned, 
and  again  when  the  stables  are  prepared  for  the  night,  to  see 
that  the  bedding  is  clean,  dry,  and  well  laid  and  that  the  gutters 
are  not  stopped  up. 

Feeding  and  Watering. — The  time  of  feeding  must  be 
regulated  according  to  the  uses  to  which  the  horses  are  put. 
The  sequence  of  feeding  should  be  the  same  for  all  horses.  As 
we  have  seen,  water  passes  almost  directly  through  the  stomach 
and  small  intestines  to  the  caecum,  or  water-sac;  the  hay  com- 


174  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPO  LOGY. 

ponent  of  the  food  is  largely  digested  in  the  intestine,  the  grain 
component,  especially  oats,  is  almost  entirely  digested  in  the 
stomach.  Starting  with  these  facts,  the  order  of  feeding  and 
watering  is  easily  formulated. 

A  horse  does  not  usually  care  for  water  early  in  the  day. 
He  wants  his  oats  then,  and  should  have  them.  Oats  are  con- 
centrated food,  full  of  nourishment  and  energy.  They  are  easily 
digested  when  thoroughly  chewed  and  mixed  with  saliva.  The 
average  horse  should  be  given  for  his  morning  meal  at  least  six 
quarts  of  oats.  They  should  be  plump,  of  sweet,  fresh  odor, 
and  free  from  dust,  dirt,  or  other  seeds.  After  feeding  oats,  at 
least  two  hours  should  elapse  before  giving  water.  After  this 
time  he  should  be  allowed  water  at  every  opportunity  until 
again  fed.  If  he  is  worked  hard  all  day,  it  is  best  to  give  him  a 
second  feed  of  oats  at  the  noon  rest-hour,  remembering  not  to 
water  him  for  two  hours  after.  When  he  comes  in  at  night,  he 
should  find  his  hay  ration  in  his  manger  and  no  oats.  An  hour 
afterwards  he  should  be  given  his  grain,  and  left  for  the  night. 
If  the  stables  are  inspected  at  various  hours  of  the  night,  some 
horses  will  be  found  lying  down,  some  dozing  in  a  standing  po- 
sition, some  feeding.  They  like  to  take  their  time  with  their 
food.  Their  stomachs  are  small.  They  are  slow  feeders.  Food 
assimilates  better  if  taken  slowly.  They  are  light  sleepers, 
easily  roused,  and  they  enjoy  a  nibble  of  food  when  awakened. 

Often  when  the  stablemen  come  in,  in  the  morning,  in  many 
of  the  mangers  a  portion  of  the  food  offered  the  night  before  will 
be  found  uneaten,  even  when  no  more  than  the  usual  amount 
had  been  placed  at  their  disposal.  In  such  cases  carefully  clean 
the  mangers  and  feed-boxes  before  offering  more  food.  The 
horse  is  off  condition  and  needs  coaxing  a  little.  The  food  he 
has  been  nosing  over  all  night  has  become  stale  and  unattractive 
to  him.  He  will  do  much  better  if  clean,  sweet  food  is  given 
him,  and  he  may  be  induced  to  eat  quite  a  little  if  humored 
in  this  way. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPO  LOGY.  175 

Bran  should  be  fed  either  dry  or  steamed.  A  cold 
bran-mash  is  about  as  indigestible  a  mess  as  a  horse  can  be  fed. 
It  is  soft  and  watery  and  easily  swallowed.  The  molars  are 
accustomed  to  hard,  dry  food.  When  food  is  softened  it  is 
ready  to  swallow,  from  the  horse's  point  of  view,  and  down  it 
goes.  A  cold  bran-mash  is  usually  full  of  dry,  unmoistened 
particles;  bran  does  not  readily  absorb  cold  water.  It  is  dis- 
tinctly a  food  that  needs  either  cooking  or  the  action  of  saliva 
to  prepare  it  for  digestion.  If  it  is  put  in  the  stomach  cold  and 
unacted  on  by  saliva,  it  will  ferment  and  produce  indigestion. 

If  fed  dry,  it  is  a  food  slowly  taken  into  the  stomach.  It 
must  be  chewed  to  get  it  moist  enough  to  be  swallowed,  and 
the  only  fluids  available  are  secretions  of  the  salivary  glands. 
When  bran,  thus  moistened,  reaches  the  stomach,  it  is  warm, 
digestion  has  begun,  and  that  process  continues  naturally. 

If  fed  wet,  it  should  be  steamed.  A  large  watertight  and 
easily  cleaned  receptacle  should  be  prepared  expressly  for  this 
purpose.  The  bran,  mixed  with  salt  in  the  proportion  of  one 
ounce  of  salt  to  three  pounds  of  bran,  should  be  put  in  it,  and 
boiling  water,  in  the  proportion  of  two  and  one-half  pints  to 
three  pounds  of  bran,  poured  over  it.  It  should  then  be  tightly 
covered  with  woolen  blankets,  and  allowed  to  steam  for  fifteen 
or  twenty  minutes.  It  should  be  fed  hot,  and  the  receptacle  it 
was  cooked  in  at  once  cleaned  and  sunned.  After  it  has  been 
eaten,  the  mangers  should  be  cleaned  thoroughly.  Bran-mash 
sours  quickly,  and,  aside  from  being  a  good  culture  for  disease 
germs,  the  odor  of  sour  bran  is  distasteful  and  makes  other  food 
mixed  with  it  not  appetizing. 

For  horses  in  good  health,  Jsran,  preferably  dry,  should  be 
fed  one  day  in  seven,  and  in  the  evening.  Cooked  mashes  are 
food  for  sick  or  ailing  horses. 

Horses  should  have  salt,  in  rock  form,  in  their  feed- 
boxes  at  all  times.     In  addition,  fine  table  salt,  a  heaping  table- 


17  j  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

spoonful  to  each  horse,  should  be  fed  twice  a  week,  either  mixed 
with  bran  or  oats,  or  placed  where  they  can  lick  it  at  their  leisure. 

The  water  furnished  horses  should  be  pure  and  fresh, 
without  taste  or  smell.  In  the  summer,  water  should  stand 
in  the  trough  long  enough  for  the  chill  to  be  taken  off.  Water 
in  large  quantities  should  never  be  given  horses  when  they  are 
heated,  unless  their  exercise  is  to  be  continued.* 

Conditioning  Thin  Horses.f — "When  a  horse  which  is 
living  under  apparently  favorable  conditions  becomes  emaci- 
ated,— neither  from  overwork  nor  from  extreme  age, — an  effort 
should  be  made  to  discover  the  cause  of  the  thinness.  Begin 
by  sending  for  the  person  responsible  for  the  condition  of  the 
horse  and  for  the  farrier,  and  with  their  assistance  solve  the 
following  points: 

1.  Has  the  horse  lampas? 

2.  Is  the  tongue  sore? 

3.  Has  he  wolf's  teeth? 

4.  Are  the  molars  sharp  and  irregular? 

5.  Does  he  quidj  his  food? 

6.  Are  the  teeth  unsound  or  out  of  order,  or  (in  the 

case  of  a  young  horse)  are  the  milk  teeth  re- 
maining in  too  long,  and  thereby  interfering 
with  the  coming  of  the  permanent  teeth? 

*Charles  B.  Michener,  V.S.  (on  p.  35,  "Diseases  of  the  Horse," 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  1903),  says:  " There  is  a  popular  fallacy 
that  if  a  horse  is  warm,  he  should  not  be  allowed  to  drink;  many  claim- 
ing that  the  first  swallow  of  water  'founders'  the  animal  or  produces 
colic.  This  is  erroneous.  No  matter  how  warm  a  horse  may  be,  it  is 
always  entirely  safe  to  allow  him  from  six  to  ten  swallows  of  water. 
The  danger  is  not  in  the  first  swallow  of  water,  but  is  due  to  the  ex- 
cessive quantity  that  the  animal  will  take,  when  warm,  if  not  re- 
strained." This  opinion  from  such  authority  is  valuable  for  horsemen 
to  have,  but  it  is  unsafe  to  permit  the  average  stableman  to  act  on  it. 
Unless  you  are  sure  that  your  man  is  careful  enough  and  faithful  enough 
to  stop  the  horse  at  six  to  ten  swallows,  it  is  wiser  to  adhere  to  the 
rule  that  the  hot  horse  should  have  no  water  until  cooled. 

fFrom  Captain  M.  F.  Rimington's  (British  Army)  little  hand- 
book, "Hints  on  Stable  Management,"  pp.  30,  31. 

JA  horse  quids  his  food  when  he  has  difficulty  in  swallowing  it. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  177 

7.  Does  he  bolt  his  oats? 

8.  Does  the  adjacent  horse  steal  his  oats,  or  bully 

him? 

9.  Is  he  a  spare*  horse? 

10.  Does  he  suffer  from  parasitic  worms? 

11.  Is  his  urine  normal? 

12.  Is  his  liver  out  of  order?     (This  is  indicated  by 

the   yellow   and   bloodless   appearance   of  the 
gums.) 

13.  Is  he  watered  regularly? 

"If  it  is  still  impossible  to  account  for  the  horse  being  out  of 
condition,  you  should  next  endeavor  to  find  out  if  he  really 
gets  his  oats  or  only  a  small  proportion  of  them;  in  a  word,  if  the 
oats  are  being  systematically  stolen.  Assured  that  the  oats  are 
not  tampered  with,  it  becomes  necessary  to  make  further  in- 
quiries as  to  the  habits  of  the  horse,  as  to  whether  he  is  restless, 
or  in  the  habit  of  fretting  or  over-exciting  himself,  either  in  the 
stable  or  when  at  work.  In  some  cases  it  is  impossible  to  dis- 
cover the  cause  or  causes  at  work.  In  obscure  cases,  a  complete 
change  of  diet,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  of  surroundings,  often  has 
a  wonderful  influence.  For  example,  a  couple  of  months'  run 
at  grass  in  the  spring  or  summer  is  most  beneficial  to  thin,  hide- 
bound horses.  Failing  this,  it  will  often  be  found  useful  to  fill 
the  manger  at  each  stable  hour  with  chaff;  this  will  give  the 
horse  something  to  pick  at,  and  keep  him  from  fretting.  Some 
men  get  horses  into  condition  more  easily  than  others,  and  it  will 
often  be  found  that  a  thin  horse,  put  into  good  hands,  will 
improve  rapidly." 

Grooming  is  another  important  item  in  the  care  of  the 
horse.  Much  of  the  excretion  is  done  through  the  skin.  While 
at  work  a  horse  perspires  freely,  and  the  very  nature  of  his  work 
keeps  him  constantly,  while  at  work,  in  a  dusty  atmosphere. 

*A  spare  animal  is  one  that,  for  constitutional  reasons,  does  not 
take  on  flesh 

—13— 


178  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

The  dust  and  sweat  and  precipitated  salts  of  perspiration  com- 
bine to  form  a  cake  at  the  hair-roots  that  clogs  the  pores.  Dry- 
ing, it  has  an  unpleasant  astringent  feeling  that  annoys  the  an- 
imal. This  crust  of  filth  and  dirt  catches  and  fosters  disease 
germs  and  parasites  that  feed  upon  the  animal  and  that  are 
never  found  on  well-groomed  horses. 

Besides  cleaning  the  coat,  grooming  stimulates  the 
circulation  and  acts  as  a  tonic  to  the  horse.  It  rests  a  tired 
animal,  relieves  congestion  following  a  hearty  meal  by  diverting 
part  of  the  excessive  blood-supply  from  the  digestive  region. 
Twenty  minutes'  brisk  grooming  in  the  morning  and  twenty-five 
in  the  evening  is  the  right  amount  to  keep  the  animal's  coat 
clean  and  skin  healthy.  More  time  than  that  will  be  appre- 
ciated in  the  satiny  coat  of  the  horse.  A  horse  can  hardly  be 
groomed  too  much.  The  average  horse  likes  to  be  fussed  with 
and  handled.  He  enjoys  having  his  legs  rubbed  and  his  coat 
brushed.  The  currycomb  is  not  so  much  enjoyed.  It  should  be 
used  merely  to  loosen  caked  mud  or  manure  on  the  exterior  of 
the  coat,  and,  except  with  the  greatest  care,  never  below  the 
knees  or  hocks.  Use  only  the  fingers  and  brush  on  the  mane 
and  tail.     Throw  cards  and  mane-combs  out  of  the  stable. 

In  grooming  with  the  horse-brush,  the  groom  should  stand 
well  away  from  the  horse,  legs  well  apart,  and,  with  the  brush 
in  the  hand  next  the  horse's  head  (and  the  currycomb  in  the 
other),  brush  the  coat  with  the  lay  of  the  hairs,  throwing  as 
much  of  the  weight  of  the  body  into  the  brush  as  possible. 
After  three  or  four  strokes  with  the  brush,  clean  it  on  the  comb. 
Clean  the  comb  every  few  minutes  by  tapping  it  on  the  ground 
in  rear  of  the  horse. 

The  sheath  should  be  frequently  washed  with  Castile 
soap  and  water,  and  never  oiled.  Oil  simply  collects  and 
holds  dust  and  makes  washing  more  often  necessary.  The 
glands  of  the  skin  secrete  all  the  oil  needed  to  keep  it  in  condition. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPO  LOGY.  179 

Keep  the  long  hairs  of  the  muzzle  cut  short.  They 
have  no  useful  function  in  the  domestic  horse  and  are  unsightly. 

Keep  the  fetlock  short  the  year  around.  In  winter  it 
should  be  an  inch  and  a  half  long  and  neatly  trimmed.  In 
summer  it  should  be  clipped. 

This  principle  in  the  care  and  treatment  of  horses 
cannot  be  too  closely  adhered  to:  Give  your  horse  plenty 
of  good  food  and  pure  water,  house  him  in  a  dry,  clean, 
and  well-ventilated  stable,  and  he  will  keep  surprisingly 
well.  Have  him  well  shod.  Work  him  hard,  through 
long  hours,  and  he  will  still  keep  well  under  the  above 
conditions.  When  he  does  get  sick  or  injured,  go  for  a 
good  veterinarian,  follow  his  advice  to  the  letter,  and  so 
save  your  money  and  your  horse. 

The  following  rules  laid  down  in  the  Cavalry  Drill 
Regulations  are  so  good  that  they  are  reproduced  here. 
Every  person  having  to  do  with  horses  should  observe 
them  strictly: 

Never  threaten,  strike,  or  abuse  a  horse. 

Before  going  into  a  stall,  speak  to  a  horse  gently  and 
then  go  in  quietly. 

Never  take  a  rapid  gait  until  a  horse  has  been  warmed 
up  by  gentle  exercise. 

Never  put  up  a  horse  brought  in  a  heated  condition 
to  the  stable  or  picket-line,  but  throw  a  blanket  over  him 
and  rub  his  legs  and  walk  him  until  cool.  When  he  is 
wet,  put  him  under  shelter  and  wisp  him  until  dry. 

Never  feed  grain  to  a  horse  nor  allow  him  tojstand 
uncovered  when  overheated.^  Hay  will  not  hurt  a  horse, 
no  matter  how  warm  he  may  be. 

Never  water  a  horse  when  heated,  unless  the  exercise 
or  march  is  to  be  immediately  resumed. 

Never  throw  water  over  any  part  of  a  horse  when 
heated. 


180  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

Never  allow  a  horse's  back  to  be  cooled  suddenly  by 
washing  or  even  by  removing  the  blanket  unnecessarily. 

To  cool  the  back  gradually,  the  blanket  may  be  re- 
moved and  replaced  with  the  dry  side  next  the  horse. 

There  is  no  emergency  that  will  justify  striking  the 
horse  on  the  head. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  181 


m  [CHAPTER  XVI. 


ENDURANCE  OF  HORSES.— VICES.— PUNISHMENT. 

The  endurance  of  a  horse  is  the  measure  of  his  ability  to 
resist  fatigue  and  is  dependent  directly  upon  his  powers  of  di- 
gestion and  assimilation  and  the  co-ordination  of  his  nervous 
and  muscular  systems. 

Muscular  power  is  derived  from  the  contraction  of  the 
muscles.  The  muscles  of  locomotion  are  composed  of  numerous 
fibers,  built  up  in  groups,  and  attached  by  a  tendon  at  each  end 
to  a  bone.  One  of  these  bones  serves  as  a  fulcrum,  the  other  as 
a  lever.  The  muscle  lies  between  them.  Each  of  the  fibers  of 
the  muscle,  animated  separately  by  a  nerve,  contracts,  and  the 
whole  muscle  is  shortened.  The  bones,  when  a  flexor  muscle  is 
contracted,  are  brought  nearer  together;  they  are  separated  more 
when  acted  on  by  extensors.  The  muscular  action  is  the  same 
in  all  muscles — the  fibers  contract  in  the  direction  of  their  length. 

As  a  muscle  contracts  its  chemical  nature  changes.  It  con- 
sumes oxygen  and  certain  other  elements  brought  to  it  by  the 
blood,  which  come  to  an  active  muscle  in  increased  quantities, 
and  it  gives  off  carbonic  acid  and  numerous  other  waste  products 
that  the  blood  washes  off  through  the  veins. 

The  entire  operation,  the  impulse  given  by  the  nerve,  the 
contraction  of  the  muscle,  and  subsequent  chemical  change  in 
the  constituent  elements  of  the  blood  "  feeding'- '  the  muscle, 
the  pull  on  the  tendon,  and  the  resultant  energy  transmitted  to 
the  bone,  must  work  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  corresponding 
actions  of  all  the  muscles  involved,  and  is  consummated  in  an 
almost  inappreciable  period  of  time. 

The  muscles  of  locomotion  are  all  voluntary  muscles;  all 
are  controlled  by  the  volition  of  the  animal.     The  muscles  that 


182  tiLttMKMIH    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

control  the  organs  of  respiration,  digestion,  and  circulation  are, 
almost  entirely,  involuntary,  but  their  actions  are  under  control 
of  nerve  impulses,  coming,  as  a  rule,  from  nerve-centers  other 
than  the  brain.  No  muscle  contracts  unless  a  nerve  animates  it, 
and  there  must  be  a  nerve  impulse  for  every  contraction. 

"  Prolonged  exercise  is  always  accompanied  by  an  expend- 
iture of  food,  of  blood,  and  of  nerve-tissue,  by  an  increased  cir- 
culation, by  an  acceleration  of  respiration,  and,  finally,  by  a 
greater  activity'  '*  of  the  organs  of  excretion.  Admitting  this,  it 
is  plain  that  the  tired  horse  owes  his  condition  indirectly  to  one 
of  two  causes:  either  to  nervous  exhaustion,  or  to  an  excessive 
clogging  of  the  muscles  with  waste  tissues.  In  either  case,  rest 
and  food  are  the  only  restoratives. 

The  ordinary  gasoline  motor  illustrates  the  situation  ex- 
actly. A  drop  of  gasoline  is  exploded  by  an  electric  spark  in  a 
cylinder.  The  resultant  gases,  by  their  expansion,  move  a  piston 
that  is  geared  to  the  wheels,  producing  locomotion.  As  long  as 
the  supply  of  gasoline  is  kept  up,  the  electric  batteries  remain 
"  alive,"  and  the  spent  gases  can  escape  and  not  clog  the  cyl- 
inders, the  efficiency  of  the  machine  is  unimpaired.  But  let 
any  one  of  these  conditions  lapse  and  the  machine  stops.  So 
with  the  horse.  As  long  as  the  digestive  apparatus  enriches  the 
blood,  the  lungs  oxidize  it,  the  veins  carry  away  the  waste 
tissues,  the  skin,  lungs,  kidneys,  and  other  organs  of  excretion 
remove  the  debris  from  the  system,  and  the  vigor  of  the  nervous 
system  (the  horse's  electric  battery)  is  unimpaired,  so  long  will 
the  horse  do  his  work.  The  failure  of  any  one  of  these  functions 
and  the  limit  of  his  endurance  is  reached.  He  may  stumble 
along  a  little  longer,  but  it  is  with  apparent  labor  and  to  little 
purpose.     He  needs  rest. 

From  the  exterior  of  the  horse  a  great  deal  can  be  predicted 
of  his  powers  of  endurance.  The  competent  horseman  can  tell 
exactly  to  what  sort  of  work  he  is  best  suited — whether  he  is  a 

*"The  Exterior  of  the  Horse,"  Goubaux  and  Barriere,  p.  415. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  183 

draft-horse,  a  driver,  a  saddler,  or  a  general  utility  horse — but 
no  one  can  tell  which  of  two  horses,  externally  of  equal  promise, 
will  be  able  to  do  the  most  work.* 

This  is  especially  trus  of  horses  bred  for  speed.  If  two 
colts,  of  similar  breeding,  are  given  advantage  of  the  most 
scientific  care  and  training,  are  brought  up  by  the  same  trainer, 
on  the  same  diet,  and  with  exactly  similar  treatment,  it  is  usually 
impossible  to  tell,  until  the  actual  test  on  the  track  is  made, 
which  will  prove  the  speedier. 

The  horse  doing  slow  work  contracts  his  muscles  slowly; 
the  expenditure  of  tissue  is  very  moderate,  and  especially  mod- 
erate is  the  expenditure  of  nerve-tissue.  He  is  tired  after  a  long 
day's  work,  but  it  is  the  weariness  that  comes  from  the  exhaus- 
tion of  the  food-supply,  not  from  nervous  exhaustion.  The  cir- 
culation, in  the  ordinarily  healthy  animal,  is  quite  sufficient  to 
keep  the  blood  pure  and  the  muscles  cleared  of  debris.  In  fact, 
much  of  the  food-supply  is  stored  between  the  muscles  and  in 
the  abdominal  region  in  the  form  of  fat.  This  fat  is  easily  drawn 
on  to  restore  waste  tissues  in  emergencies  when  extra  work  is  to 
be  done,  or  when  the  food-supply  is  diminished.  It  also  adds  to 
the  mass  of  the  horse,  and  so  increases  his  value  for  draft  pur- 
poses. The  nerves  of  such  an  animal  are  never  over-taxed.  He 
is  kind,  gentle,  free  from  vice,  and  obedient. 

The  race-horse,  the  trot  ting-horse,  the  hunter,  the  polo- 
pony — "the  horse  of  luxury"  generally — has  work  of  an  en- 
tirely different  sort  to  do.  Speed  is  what  he  is  bred  for;  speed 
and  endurance.  The  race-horse  is  bred  in  economic  idleness. 
He  is  trained  to  make  his  machinery  perfect  and  under  perfect 
control.     The  preparation  for  a  race,  after  his  schooling  is  done, 

*Of  a  team  of  large  sorrel  horses  of  no  particular  breed,  owned 
by  a  contractor  doing  work  at  the  Military  Academy,  one  horse  has 
used  up  three  team-mates,  and  is  still  sound  and  in  prime  condition. 
Nothing  in  his  external  appearance  would  indicate  any  extraordinary 
qualities.  He  does  his  full  share  of  the  work,  yet  what  he  thrives 
under  wears  out  other  horses,  apparently  just  as  good,  in  a  short  time. 


184  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOOY. 

is  a  matter  of  weeks,  and  his  work  is  done  in  two  or  three  minutes. 
Yet,  with  all  the  preparation  possible,  after  this  short  period  of 
work,  he  is  more  exhausted  than  is  the  draft-horse  after  ten 
hours'  steady  pulling.  To  restore  him  to  his  full  strength,  he 
must  be  cooled  slowly,  fed  and  watered  with  judgment,  exercised 
regularly. 

The  nervous  strain  in  this  sort  of  work  is  tremendous.  The 
muscular  contractions  are  frequent,  violent,  and  sudden.  The 
supply  of  blood  and  the  change  in  the  muscular  tissues  are 
greatly  increased  and  the  debris  correspondingly  increased. 
The  lungs  are  called  on  to  purify  the  blood  in  greater  quantities. 
The  nostrils  are  dilated  and  the  windpipe  straightened  to  in- 
crease the  volume  of  air  entering  the  lungs.  The  inspiration  of 
all  this  added  work  must  come  from  the  nervous  system,  from 
the  brain  and  other  nerve-centers.  These  organs  must  be  finely 
developed  to  do  this  extra  work  properly.  The  result  is  that 
the  race-horse,  as  a  rule — and  in  less  degree  the  same  is  true  of 
the  other  horses  of  luxury — is  an  excitable  animal,  nervous,  high 
strung,  often  vicious.  He  has  little  of  the  docility  and  tracta- 
bility  of  the  farm-horse. 

i  %  The  polo-pony  is  called  on  to  play  two  periods  of  fifteen 
minutes  each  two  or  three  times  a  week  during  the  polo  season; 
yet  in  these  few  minutes  of  play  he  earns  his  oats  as  honestly  as 
the  cab-horse  does  in  his  ten  hours  a  day. 

The  horse  should  never  be  pushed  to  the  limit  of  his  en- 
durance. It  is  not  necessary  to  do  this  to  determine  when  he 
has  worked  enough.  The  horse's  breathing  furnishes  an  ex- 
cellent witness  to  his  condition.  While  he  is  working  easily,  he 
breathes  without  effort.  When  he  begins  to  tire,  his  breathing 
becomes  more  and  more  labored,  and  his  heaving  flanks  will 
show  the  effort  he  is  making  to  keep  up.  If  the  horse  is  not 
rested  then  and  allowed  to  recuperate,  other  unmistakable  signs 
of  exhaustion  will  follow. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  185 

"As  to  nerve  -  conductibility,  its  feebleness  or  its  disap- 
pearance is  seen  in  unequivocal  signs  on  the  locomotory  ap- 
paratus; the  muscular  contractions  are  weaker  and  slower;  the 
efforts  diminish  in  intensity  and  rapidity;  the  intervals  be- 
tween the  steps  are  no  longer  equal  and  in  co-ordination;  the 
members  meet  and  strike  each  other;  the  gait,  at  first  uncertain, 
becomes  tottering;  the  head  hangs  low;  the  subject  becomes 
more  and  more  insensible  to  the  surroundings;  soon  he  falls  in  a 
heap  and  dies  at  his  task.  But,  before  reaching  this  point,  his 
steps  are  less  free,  heavy,  and  uncertain;  he  forges.  All  these 
signs  should  be  sufficient,  and  their  appearance  demands  an 
immediate  cessation  of  the  experiment."* 


VICES  AND  DANGEROUS  HABITS  OF  THE  HORSE. f 

"The  horse  is  an  animal  of  a  noble  and  generous  disposi- 
tion, and  naturally  possessed  of  few  vices,  although  he  is  occa- 
sionally met  with  having  a  bad  and  even  furious  temper,  and,  as 
may  be  expected,  manifests  great  variety  of  natural  habit.  His 
vices,  however,  are  too  often  attributable  to  the  effects  of  im- 
proper training  and  to  tricks  which  he  is  taught  by  the  treatment 
and  folly  of  his  groom  or  keeper. 

"The  first  breaking-in  of  the  horse  should  only  be  intrusted 
to  persons  of  mild  disposition,  as  it  is  by  kind  and  patient  treat- 
ment alone  that  we  can  hope  to  succeed  in  rendering  this  val- 
uable animal  truly  useful  and  docile.  No  doubt  but  in  nine 
cases  out  of  ten,  where  horses  exhibit  furious  or  stubborn  tempers, 
that  these  have  been  produced  from  the  cruelty  and  ignorance 
of  their  first  trainers. 

"Restiveness. — The  most  unpleasant  and  dangerous  of  all 
vices  possessed  by  the  horse  is  that  of  restiveness.     Sometimes 

*"The  Exterior  of  the  Horse,"  Gouboux  and  Barriere,  p.  420. 

fFrom  "The  Complete  Modern  Farrier."  Thomas  Brown,  M.P.S., 
thirty-first  edition,  1900,  Chapter  XV.,  pp.  340-360. 


186  ELEMENTS    OF    HIFPOLOGY. 

this  proceeds  from  a  naturally  bad  temper  and  at  other  times 
from  faultiness  in  education.  This  term  includes  plunging, 
rearing,  kicking,  bolting,  and  general  impatience  while  mounting. 
A  horse  with  any  of  the  above  faults  can  never  be  depended  upon, 
for,  although  we  may  use  means  to  counteract  a  particular  vice, 
whether  by  compulsion  or  gentle  measures,  he  may  exhibit  that 
vice  when  we  are  off  our  guard  and  are  least  expecting  it.  Force 
may  bring  him  to  obedience,  and  he  may  succumb  to  him  who 
has  had  the  determination  to  subjugate  him,  but,  when  mounted 
by  another,  he  is  extremely  liable  to  break  out  again.  A  horse 
that  kicks  in  harness  may  be  driven  with  safety  by  a  cautious 
or  experienced  driver  or  coachman,  but  still  there  is  no  cer- 
tainty of  his  not  exhibiting  the  same  trick  years  afterwards; 
indeed,  most  horses  which  have  been  kickers  return  to  it  again. 

"  However  high  the  temper  which  the  horse  may  exhibit, 
we  would  recommend  that  he  should  be  broken  from  his  vices  by 
kind  and  soothing  means  and  these  exercised  with  patience  for  a 
considerable  length  of  time,  and  force  should  only  be  resorted  to 
when  all  other  means  have  failed. 

"  There  is  little  chance  of  reclaiming  a  bad-tempered  horse 
by  harsh  treatment;  indeed,  it  will  always  be  found  to  have  an 
opposite  tendency.  An  ill-tempered  groom  should  never  be  al- 
lowed to  enter  a  stable,  however  fit  he  may  be  for  his  business  in 
every  other  respect;  for  a  surly,  bullying  fellow  is  sure  to  frighten 
horses  so  much  that  when  he  enters  a  stable  they  will  jump  from 
side  to  side  at  his  approach.  Many  a  scar  has  been  inflicted  by 
such  a  man  by  using  his  pitchfork  instead  of  soothing  the  animal 
for  his  fault,  and  if  asked  how  the  horse  came  by  the  blemish,  he 
invents  a  falsehood  to  account  for  it. 

"Rearing. — Rearing  is  one  of  the  worse  vices  in  a  horse, 
and  is  practiced  with  the  intent  to  throw  the  rider  off.  Some- 
times it  is  the  result  of  playfulness,  but  even  then  it  is  a  dangerous 
and  unpleasant  fault.  The  use  of  a  deep  curb  and  sharp  bit  will, 
in  some  instances,  cause  even  a  quiet  horse  to  rear,  and  when 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  187 

this  is  the  case,  immediate  recourse  must  be  had  to  the  snaffle 
bridle. 

"As  in  kicking,  however,  this  is  seldom  or  never  cured. 
Horse-breakers  have  attempted  it  by  absurd  and  dangerous  means 
— namely,  that  of  pulling  the  horse  backward  on  a  piece  of  soft 
ground.  This  has  ruined  many  horses.  If  rearing  proceeds 
from  determinedly  vicious  habits,  it  is  a  hopeless  case,  as  the 
animal  seldom  abandons  it.  Sometimes  horses  rear  from  play- 
fulness, which  is,  however,  very  different  from  that  which  pro- 
ceeds from  passion. 

"Kicking. — The  vice  of  kicking  is  too  often  caused  by 
horses  being  teased,  tickled,  and  pinched  by  grooms  from  wanton 
mischief  or  thoughtless  folly.  The  habit  becomes  habitual  with 
the  animals,  and  what  was  at  first  only  done  in  play  is  exercised 
in  anger,  and  often  too  when  one  leasts  expects  it.  In  short,  it 
is  a  dangerous  and  incurable  vice. 

"Horses  with  an  irritable  or  fidgety  disposition  kick  the 
stall  or  bail,  and  especially  during  the  night.  This  is  a  great  an- 
noyance to  other  horses  in  the  stable  and  breaks  their  rest.  Be- 
sides, the  animal  is  liable  to  injure  himself  seriously,  and  bring 
on  swelled  hocks  or  other  malady.  Mares  are  more  given  to 
this  than  horses;  and  in  either^  it  is  difficult  to  eradicate  if  once 
confirmed. 

"The  vice  is  seldom  eradicated.  Never  trust  a  kicker. 
"Biting. — This  trick  often  proceeds  from  play,  and  is 
taught  by  the  folly  of  grooms  or  stable-boys  teasing  the  animals. 
But  what  they  have  acquired  as  a  sport  becomes  a  fixed  habit; 
and  when  thwarted  in  any  manner  they  will  sometimes  bite 
with  great  severity.  Like  other  vices,  this  is  difficult  of  cure, 
and  it  is  but  seldom  they  can  be  really  broken  of  it.  Teasing  a 
horse  should  be  strictly  forbidden.  Biting,  like  other  vices, 
should  never  be  taught  the  animal,  as  it  is  easier  to  avoid  it 
than  to  effect  a  cure.     Gentle  treatment  is  the  best  suited  for  all 


188  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

our  domestic  animals  and  the  surest  way  to  command  their 
affections. 

"  Seizing  the  Cheek  of  the  Bit. — Some  horses  are  so  cun- 
ning as  to  get  the  cheek  of  the  bit  into  their  mouth,  which  gives 
them  a  great  command  over  their  rider  or  driver.  There  is  no 
cure  for  this;  and  the  only  thing  that  can  be  done  is  to  fasten  a 
piece  of  round  leather,  or  use  some  other  mechanical  contrivance, 
so  that  the  animal  cannot  possibly  get  the  cheek  of  the  bit  into 
his  mouth.  Neither  soothing  nor  beating  will  remedy  this  trick, 
as  the  horse  who  has  once  been  guilty  of  it  is  sure  to  seize  the 
first  opportunity  to  repeat  it  when  anything  vexes  him.  Many 
very  serious  accidents  have  happened  to  persons  from  horses 
running  away  with  the  cheek-bit  between  their  teeth. 

"  Running  Away. — The  only  thing  that  can  be  done  in 
this  case  is  to  use  a  strong  curb  with  a  sharp  bit,  and  at  the 
same  time  always  keeping  a  firm  bridle-hand. 

"  Shying. — Of  all  the  vices  incidental  to  the  horse,  shying 
is  one  of  the  worst,  and  more  accidents  have  happened  from  it 
than  any  other  of  the  vices  or  defects  of  the  horse.  Shying  pro- 
ceeds from  various  causes,  but  one  of  the  principal  is  defective 
vision;  timidity  stands  next;  and  it  often  proceeds  from  a  dis- 
position to  be  playful.  This  vice  is  far  less  common  among 
high-bred  horses  than  with  those  which  are  half-bred,  although 
we  have  met  with  it  in  some  of  our  first  racers. 

"When  we  have  a  horse  given  to  shying,  our  first  attention 
should  be  directed  to  the  cause — that  is,  whether  it  proceeds 
from  friskiness,  timidity,  or  defective  vision. 

"When  shying  proceeds  from  playfulness,  it  is  difficult  to 
judge  what  mode  of  cure  is  best  to  be  adopted,  because  if  cor- 
rected for  it,  he  will  associate  with  any  object  that  diverts  his 
attention  the  infliction  of  punishment,  which  will  tempt  him  to 
run  away  under  the  dread  of  a  flogging;  and  if  caressed  for  the 
fault,  it  is  liable  to  induce  him  to  repeat  it.  But,  of  two  evils, 
gentle  correction  must  be  adopted,  and  rather  to  pass  by  the 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  189 

object  than  to  take  him  up  to  it.  He  should  also  be  spoken  to 
sharpty. 

"If  shying  proceeds  from  fear  of  new  objects,  the  true  way 
to  correct  him  of  this  is  not  to  force  him  up  to  them,  but  to  pat 
him  and  to  soothe  him,  but  avoid  beating  him;  and  take  care 
to  pass  the  objects  of  his  fear  again  and  again,  always  going 
nearer  to  them  every  time  you  pass.  This  will  familiarize  him 
to  them.  Seeing  that  these  are  harmless,  he  will  soon  learn  to 
pass  by  unnoticed  any  novel  object  which  he  may  meet  with 
upon  a  road. 

"When  an  animal  is  given  to  shying  from  defective  sight, 
the  only  method  to  effect  a  cure  is  to  take  him  up  to  it,  and,  in 
the  act  of  doing  so,  he  must  be  coaxed  to  approach  it,  and  on  no 
account  must  he  be  beaten;  and,  although  it  sometimes  happens 
that  the  horse  will  manifest  great  reluctance  to  do  s  .  he  should 
be  persevered  with  and  not  allowed  to  proceed  until  he  has  been 
closely  the  object  of  his  fear.  After  he  has  been  a  few  times  thus 
treated,  he  will  soon  learn  to  pass  with  indifference  any  object 
which  he  may  meet. 

"Restiveness,  and  Resisting  Being  Mounted. — Some 
horses  which  possess  a  lively  or  impatient  temper  manifest  a 
desire  to  start  off  before  the  rider  can  get  seated  in  the  saddle. 
Indeed,  some  will  attempt  to  set  off  whenever  the  foot  is  put  in 
the  stirrup.  This  is  a  troublesome  and  dangerous  fault,  even 
with  the  most  expert  horsemen,  and  especially  so  to  those  who- 
are  inexperienced  or  infirm.  Horses  sometimes  become  so  cun- 
ning that  they  know  a  good  from  a  bad  horseman,  and  finding 
they  are  either  to  be  or  actually  mounted  by  a  timid  or  indif- 
ferent rider,  will  endeavor  to  throw  him  off,  or  bolt  away  before 
he  is  properly  seated. 

"When  a  horse  has  this  propensity,  he  should  be  mounted 
quickly  and  without  fear,  and  not  allowed  to  proceed  on  his 
journey  until  he  is  perfectly  quiet.  Instances  are  not  few  where 
horses  that  are  generally  pleasant  and  easy  to  mount  become 


190  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

restive  when  too  high  fed  and  having  too  little  work.  The 
remedy  for  this  is  obvious. 

"  Vicious  While  Cleaning. — Very  great  differences  exist  in 
the  temper  exhibited  by  horses  under  the  operation  of  cleaning. 
Some  that  are  steady  and  quiet  on  the  road  and  in  the  field 
cannot  be  cleaned  without  great  hazard  to  their  grooms  as  well 
as  the  danger  of  laming  themselves.  This  often  proceeds  from 
a  very  sensitive  skin  and  at  other  times  from  their  grooms  having 
inflicted  severe  chastisement  on  some  former  occasion  when 
cleaning.  Besides,  ill-disposed  grooms,  by  teasing  the  animals, 
or  currying  them  with  a  broken-toothed  comb  or  uneven-surfaced 
brush,  teach  them  this  bad  habit,  and  have  even  a  delight  in 
seeing  the  animals  show  their  teeth;  and  this  is  continued  until 
it  becomes  a  fixed  vice.  If  a  change  of  grooms  takes  place,  what 
was  done  partly  in  play  is  then  manifested  in  anger,  and  serious 
injuries  have  been  inflicted  upon  the  unsuspecting  stranger.  It 
therefore  behooves  grooms  to  be  cautious  how  they  handle  a 
strange  horse. 

"  There  is  much  variety  in  the  sensibility  of  the  skin  of 
horses,  some  being  so  tender  that  moderate  rubbing  gives  them 
uneasiness,  while  others  are  so  much  the  reverse  that  the  whip 
hardly  excites  it.  It  will  not  be  difficult  to  overcome  this  vicious 
habit.  When  the  groom  discovers  it,  the  best  plan  is  to  use  a 
gentle  hand  while  cleaning,  and  lean  lightly  on  those  parts  which 
seem  most  sensitive;  and  avoid  punishing  the  horses  for  exhib- 
iting restiveness,  and  he  will  soon  lose  all  recollection  of  the 
former  ill-treatment  which  he  had  received  from  his  groom,  and 
become  quiet  and  steady. 

"  Crib-Biting. — Crib-biting  is  one  of  the  worst  habits  which 
a  horse  can  acquire,  and  is  seldom  or  ever  cured.  The  horse 
seizes  the  manger  with  his  teeth  while  he  stretches  his  neck  for- 
ward, and  after  some  spasmodic  action  of  the  throat,  a  slight 
grunting  sound  is  uttered,  which  appears  to  be  accompanied  by  a 
drawing  in  of  air.     The  cause  of  this  trick  is  not  yet  well  under- 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  191 

stood;  and  whether  it  proceeds  from  a  bad  habit,  or  a  defect  in 
the  false  palate  and  back  part  of  the  mouth,  still  remains  un- 
discovered, and  therefore  we  shall  not  indulge  in  any  speculative 
opinions  as  to  its  origin. 

"One  serious  effect  of  this  trick  is  the  wearing  down  of  the 
teeth;  and  instances  have  occurred  where  they  have  been 
broken.  It  has  likewise  been  found  that  crib-biters  are  more 
liable  to  colic  than  those  without  this  vice. 

"It  has  been  found  that  crib-biting  is  acquired  by  horses 
being  in  the  stable  with  one  which  has  the  trick.  Among  the 
expedients  which  have  been  resorted  to  for  the  cure  of  crib- 
biting,  the  edge  of  the  manger  has  been  lined  with  iron,  also  with 
sheepskin  besmeared  with  aloes,  tar,  and  other  disagreeable  sub- 
stances, but  all  with  no  effect.  The  only  thing  in  this  case  is  to 
resort  to  a  preventative,  and  that  will  be  found  in  the  use  of  a 
strap  buckled  tightly  around  the  neck,  which  has  the  effect  of 
compressing  the  windpipe  and  rendering  it  impossible  to  resort 
to  it;  but  no  sooner  is  the  strap  removed  than  the  horse  re- 
commences his  old  habit,  so  that  it  must  be  constantly  worn  to 
be  of  use.  But  the  continued  use  of  it  is  apt  to  produce  irrita- 
tion in  the  trachea,  and  this  will  terminate  in  the  affection  termed 
roaring.  A  five  or  six  months'  run  in  a  field  has  been  tried 
without  proving  a  remedy.  Crib-biters  are  generally  in  low 
condition. 

"A  muzzle  barred  across  the  bottom  will  prevent  crib- 
biting.  This  must  be  made  only  of  sufficient  width  to  allow 
full  action  to  the  lips,  so  that  the  animal  may  pull  his  hay  from 
the  rack  and  eat  his  corn,  but  so  close  as  not  to  admit  of  him 
grasping  the  edge  of  the  manger.  Crib-biting  is  legally  con- 
sidered an  unsoundness. 

uWind-Sucking. — This  is  so  intimately  connected  with 
crib-biting  that  it  may  properly  be  considered  a  modification  of 
it,  as  it  is  accompanied  by  a  want  of  condition  and  the  same 
bending  of  the  neck,  with  the  head  drawn  inward,  is  manifested, 


192  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

and  the  horse  alternately  opens  and  closes  his  lips,  and  a  sound 
is  produced  similar  to  sucking  air.  The  remedies  attempted 
have  been  tying  up  the  head  of  the  horse,  except  when  feeding, 
and  the  application  of  a  muzzle  with  sharp  spikes  bending  to- 
wards the  neck,  which  will  prick  him  when  drawing  in  his  head. 

"Not  Lying  down. — Horses  are  sometimes  prone  to  stand- 
ing constantly,  and  some  only  lie  down  once  in  a  fortnight,  or 
even  a  longer  period.  When  this  is  the  case,  they  are  generally 
liable  to  swellings  in  the  limbs,  and  seldom  able  to  go  through 
much  work.  Such  horses  should,  if  possible,  be  put  in  a  stable 
by  themselves  and  left  at  liberty,  and  a  well-made  bed  will 
sometimes  tempt  them  to  lie  down.  No  means  can  be  adopted 
to  force  the  animal  to  take  rest  by  lying  down.  When  it  is  not 
possible  to  place  him  in  a  stable  alone,  an  empty  box  should  be 
constructed,  so  that  he  may  be  left  for  the  night  unhaltered  in  it. 

"  Pawing. — This  is  a  disagreeable  and  very  bad  habit,  and 
proceeds  from  an  irritable  temper.  Bruised  feet  and  sprained 
legs  too  often  proceed  from  it.  The  shoes  are  quickly  worn 
down  in  front,  and  the  litter  considerably  wasted. 

"Weaving. — Animals  of  an  impatient,  irritable  temper, 
that  dislike  confinement  in  a  stable,  will  sometimes  keep  moving 
their  head,  neck,  and  body  to  and  fro,  like  the  motion  of  a 
weaver's  shuttle.  These  have  been  called  'weavers/  Such 
horses  seldom  or  never  carry  much  flesh,  from  their  fretful 
temper  and  incessant  movement.  The  only  preventative  is  to 
tie  the  head  close  up,  except  when  feeding." 


REWARD  AND  PUNISHMENT. 

In  training  and  handling  a  horse,  full  advantage  should  be 
taken  of  his  lack  of  intelligence  and  his  acute  memory.  To  make 
a  horse  understand  in  his  training  that  he  is  wanted  to  back,  for 
instance,  the  rider  must,  in  the  first  place,  adopt  a  set  of  signals 
that  mechanically  suggest  the  idea  of  backing.     The  horse  is 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  193 

standing  quietly.  The  rider's  legs  are  closed,  lower  legs  slightly 
in  rear,  to  induce  the  horse  to  draw  his  legs  under  him.  The 
knees  are  not  closed,  unless  he  wavers  to  the  right  or  left.  The 
hand  is  lowered  and  the  rein  drawn  in.  He  arches  his  neck, 
bringing  the  mass  of  his  head  and  neck  nearer  to  his  body.  At 
the  same  time  the  rider  leans  back.  The  shifting  of  the  mass  of 
the  horse  and  rider  to  the  rear  throws  the  center  of  gravity  to 
the  rear.  The  horse  has  "  drawn  his  legs  under  him"  at  the 
suggestion  of  his  rider's  heels,  his  balance  is  insecure  in  conse- 
quence, and  he  steps  back.  He  has  done  what  the  rider  wishes 
and,  at  the  instant  of  yielding,  the  rider  should  encourage  him 
with  hand  and  voice.  The  second  time  the  request  is  made  of 
the  horse  by  the  same  signals  he  steps  back  more  readily,  and 
should  instantly  be  rewarded.  Finally,  after  repeated  trials,  the 
horse  learns  that,  when  both  of  the  rider's  legs  are  brought  back 
with  equal  pressure,  and  he  is  reined  straight  back,  he  is  ex- 
pected to  back,  because  he  remembers  that  when  he  did  re- 
spond in  that  manner  to  those  signals  he  was  rewarded. 

Horses  do  not  recognize  persons;  they  do  remember  re- 
wards and  punishment.  The  author  has  often  noticed,  in  the 
riding-hall  at  West  Point,  where  the  same  horse  does  duty  for 
two  cadets  on  alternate  days,  that  certain  horses,  as  the  platoon 
is  marched  into  the  hall,  appear  to  be  looking  for  someone. 
The  cadet  to  whom  the  horse  is  assigned  approaches  him,  and 
the  horse  makes  every  sign  of  recognition,  and  is  rewarded  with 
an  apple  or  a  bit  of  sugar.  It  seems  almost  unquestionable  that 
he  has  recognized  an  old  friend.  The  next  day  the  other  cadet 
to  whom  he  is  assigned  approaches  him;  the  horse  gives  the  same 
signs  of  looking  for  someone,  then  of  recognition,  and  then  of 
disappointment.  The  second  cadet  is  not  his  friend  of  the  apple 
or  sugar;  it  was  not  the  friend,  after  all,  that  he  was  seeking, 
but  the  dainty  that  the  friend  was  bringing. 

It  is  well  for  horse-users  that  horses  are  indifferent  to  the 
identity  of  the  persons  handling  them,  otherwise  they  might  ob- 
—14— 


194  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

ject  to  a  change  of  riders.  The  greater  the  intelligence  of  a 
horse,  the  more  care  must  be  shown  in  his  training  and  use.  A 
dull  horse  becomes  sluggish  under  abuse;  an  intelligent  one 
becomes  vicious. 

The  tone  of  voice  used  by  a  rider  has  great  influence  on  a 
horse,  if  not  used  at  inappropriate  times.  It  is  of  no  use  to  be 
constantly  talking  to  a  horse,  but  a  word  spoken  in  a  sharp, 
high  tone  will  startle  him,  while  one  in  a  softer,  lower  tone  will 
soothe  and  steady  him.  Like  all  other  aids  in  horsemanship, 
the  voice  should  be  used  consistently  and  at  the  critical  moment. 

The  whole  education  of  the  horse  is  based  on  the  principles 
of  reward  and  punishment.  No  animal  is  more  sensitive  to  ap- 
probation than  a  normal  horse.  Observe  a  young  horse,  that  has 
not  been  spoiled  in  training,  when  he  is  learning  a  new  lesson. 
The  attitude  of  his  head  and  ears,  the  expression  of  his  eye,  show 
that  he  is  watching  the  aids  closely.  After  successfully  ex- 
ecuting a  command  of  his  rider,  if  the  latter  pats  his  neck  and 
speaks  kindly  to  him — "  makes  much  of  him" — he  shows  his  ap- 
preciation of  the  attention  by  his  expression.  The  rider  should 
be  careful  to  give  the  neck  a  good,  generous  slap — not  enough 
to  hurt,  but  sufficient  to  attract  his  attention,  and  positive 
enough  to  show  no  timorousness.  Horses  quickly  learn  whether 
or  not  their  riders  are  timid,  and  are  veiy  quick  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  the  occasion  and  follow  their  own  inclination.  It 
often  seems  as  if  an  old  troop-horse  enjoys  the  fears  of  the  re- 
cruit. This  is  also  shown  in  the  horses  used  for  the  instruction 
of  the  cadets  of  the  third  class  at  the  Military  Academy.  Usually 
only  the  quietest,  steadiest  horses  are  chosen  for  this  work. 
Some  of  them  plod  stoically  around  the  hall,  impervious  to  any- 
thing the  cadet  can  do.  Others  take  liberties  with  their  riders, 
in  an  apparent  spirit  of  play,  that  they  would  never  think  of 
showing  if  the  rider  were  a  first-class  man.  For  this  reason  the 
pat  on  the  neck  should  be  positive,  reassuring  the  horse  that  the 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  195 

rider  knows  what  he  is  about  and  appreciates  the  work  of  his 
horse.     It  should  be  accompanied  by  the  voice. 

There  is  only  one  instant  when  punishment  should  be  ad- 
ministered to  a  horse— that  is  the  instant  the  fault  was  com- 
mitted, and  punishment  should  never  be  given  in  anger.  The 
horse  does  not  reason;  he  feels  and  he  remembers.  The  horse 
cannot  understand  why  he  is  punished.  What  he  knows  is  that 
certain  acts  of  his  are  met  with  reward,  certain  others  with  pun- 
ishment, and,  if  properly  handled,  he  will  do  the  things  he  was 
doing  when  he  was  rewarded  and  avoid  the  things  he  was  doing 
when  he  was  punished.  For  this  reason,  when  a  horse  rears,  he 
should  be  struck  with  the  whip  while  he  is  in  the  air,  not  after 
he  comes  down.  If  he  kicks,  he  should  be  struck  while  actually 
kicking.  If  struck  after  the  kick  is  finished,  he  will  be  very  apt 
to  kick  again.     The  cause  and  the  effect  must  come  together. 

James  Fillis,  probably  the  greatest  high-school  rider  of  all 
time,  says:*  "The  great  art  in  breaking  is  to  reward  and  punish 
in  an  appropriate  manner;  in  order  to  do  which  we  must  seize 
the  exact  moment  of  obedience  or  resistance.  Here  we  must 
bear  in  mind  the  fundamental  principle  of  breaking — namely, 
that  reward  should  follow  obedience  as  quickly  as  punishment 
follows  disobedience." 


*"  Breaking   and   Riding,"    by   James    Fillis  (Charles   Scribner's 
Sons,  1902),  p.  112.  foot-note. 


196  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


CHAPTER  XVII 


THE  CARE  OF  SICK  HORSES. 

The  prescriptions  and  methods  of  treatment  contained  in 
this  chapter  are  given  by  Farrier  Edmund  Lee,  U.  S.  M.  A.  De- 
tachment of  Cavalry,  who,  for  more  than  twenty  years,  has  had 
the  care  of  the  sick  horses  in  the  stable  of  that  detachment. 
Probably  nowhere  in  the  service  are  horses  put  to  severer  tests 
than  here.  The  stable  where  he  has  done  his  work  was  over- 
crowded, damp,  dark,  and  badly  ventilated.  The  horses'  work 
is  of  the  most  trying  character — part  of  the  year  it  is  violently 
severe,  at  other  times  there  is  nothing  at  all  for  half  of  them 
to  do.  In  a  word,  the  horses  were  badly  stabled  and  irregularly 
worked.  As  a  result,  there  was  much  sickness,  especially  of 
the  lungs  and  digestive  apparatus.  The  veterinarian  visited  the 
stable  every  third  day  and  prescribed,  treatment  for  the  horses 
on  sick-list  at  the  time  of  his  visit.  All  emergency  cases  and 
all  the  nursing  fell  on  Farrier  Lee.  In  the  midst  of  all  these 
difficulties  he  has  faithfully  nursed  and  "  doctored"  the  sick  and 
the  cripples  and  has  prolonged  their  usefulness  as  no  veter- 
inarian could  have  done  without  an  equally  faithful  nurse. 

These  prescriptions  are  simple,  and,  as  far  as  drugs  can  be, 
safe.  They  have  the  merit  of  having  been  tested  by  many  years 
of  successful  use. 

In  these  prescriptions  a  teaspoon  is  one  fluid-dram;  a  table- 
spoon, half  a  fluid-ounce.  Medicines  should  always  be  weighed 
or  measured  as  accurately  as  circumstances  will  permit. 

The  troubles  most  commonly  met  with  in  a  cavalry  stable 
are  sprains,  open  sores,  cuts,  thrush,  scratches,  sore  backs,  colic, 
and  colds.  Polo-ponies  are  laid  up  more  often  with  sprains, 
sore  backs,  bruises,  and  ringbones  than  by  any  other  cause. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  197 

For  sprains,  a  lotion  made  of  four  tablespoons  of  lead 
acetate  and  four  tablespoons  of  tincture  of  opium,  mixed  with 
one  quart  of  water  is  very  soothing.  This  is  a  stronger  lotion 
than  the  usual  white  lotion,  which  has  but  two  tablespoons  of 
each  drug.  Opium  is  a  sedative  and  acts  to  relieve  pain;  lead 
acetate  is  astringent  and  tends  to  contract  the  capillaries  and  to 
cool  the  part  by  limiting  the  supply  of  blood  to  it. 

This  lotion  is  applied  by  soaking  absorbent  cotton  with  it 
and  fastening  it  to  the  part  with  a  loose  bandage.  The  bandage 
is  kept  wet  by  pouring  the  lotion  on  several  times  daily.  This 
lotion  is  better  for  sprained  tendons  and  ligaments  than  for 
sprained  muscles.  For  the  latter,  and  for  sore  throats  as  well, 
a  very  efficient  stimulating  liniment  is  made  of  a  pint  of  linseed 
or  olive  oil,  four  tablespoons  each  of  water  of  ammonia,  tur- 
pentine, and  opium.  This  is  to  be  thoroughly  mixed  and  ap- 
plied by  hand-rubbing;  never  internally. 

The  oil  is  slow  to  evaporate,  penetrating,  and  carries  the 
other  drugs  with  it  into  the  affected  tissues.  The  water  of  am- 
monia and  turpentine  stimulate  a  more  active  circulation,  and 
the  opium  allays  the  pain. 

For  cuts  and  open  sores,  use  an  ointment  composed  of  a 
heaping  tablespoon  of  oxide  of  zinc,  rubbed  up  with  one-fourth 
of  a  teaspoon  of  glycerine,  four  tablespoons  of  vaseline,  and 
thirty  drops  of  carbolic  acid.  The  zinc  oxide  can  also  be  dusted 
dry  on  the  wound.  The  wound  should  be  first  well  washed 
and  dried. 

Oxide  of  zinc  is  an  antiseptic — that  is,  it  destroys  the  germs 
of  disease,  putrefaction,  or  fermentation.  It  is  obnoxious  to 
flies.  Carbolic  acid  is  also  an  antiseptic;  the  glycerine  and  vasel- 
ine are  added  to  blend  the  two  into  a  smooth  ointment.  A  cut 
or  an  open  sore  that  is  not  infected  needs  only  to  be  kept  quiet 
and  clean  to  heal.  The  principal  object  of  this  ointment  is  to 
keep  disease  germs  from  the  cut  and  to  keep  it  from  drying  by 


198  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

too  rapid  evaporation.  The  latter  is  accomplished  by  the  vasel- 
ine, which  evaporates  very  slowly. 

In  the  treatment  of  open  sores  or  cuts,  every  effort  should 
be  made  to  prevent  infection  and  the  consequent  suppuration. 
It  may  be  safely  asserted  that  suppuration  in  an  open  wound  or 
sore  is  always  the  result  of  neglect.  Abscesses  and  internal 
ulcers  become  infected  by  germs  brought  to  them,  usually  by 
the  blood  itself.  A  severe  bruise,  for  instance,  may  develop 
into  an  infected  sore  without  any  noticeable  external  sign  of  its 
presence,  but  a  cut  can  always  be  seen,  and,  if  the  antiseptics 
and  suitable  bandages  are  at  hand,  it  should  not  be  allowed  to 
fester.  An  excellent  antiseptic  wash  is  made  of  one  part  of  car- 
bolic acid  to  twenty  parts  of  water.  This  will  smart  when  ap- 
plied. The  addition  of  one  part  of  glycerine  will  allay  the 
smarting  to  a  certain  extent,  without  destroying  the  germ- 
destroying  properties  of  the  carbolic  acid. 

Thrush  is  a  direct  result,  usually,  of  bad  stable  manage- 
ment, but  as  it  does  not  cause  lameness  or  become  prominently 
noticeable  until  it  is  in  quite  an  advanced  stage,  it  is  frequently 
found  in  old,  poorly-drained  stables  with  bad  floors,  in  spite  of 
careful  attention  to  the  horse's  feet. 

A  horse  affected  with  thrush  should  be  taken  to  the  black- 
smith's shop,  where  all  the  ragged  and  diseased  portions  of  the 
frog  should  be  cut  away.  The  frog  should  then  be  cleaned  thor- 
oughly and  sprayed  with  equal  parts  of  carbolic  acid  and  water — 
a  very  radical  treatment,  but  one  that  Farrier  Lee  swears  by. 
The  frog  is  then  dusted  with  powdered  bluestone  and  packed 
with  pine  tar  and  oakum.  A  leather  sole  is  then  laid  on  and 
held  in  place  by  the  shoe.  This  treatment  will  be  of  no  avail 
unless  the  unsanitary  cause  of  the  disease  is  removed;  it  will 
stay  its  progress,  but  it  will  not  cure  it. 

Another  very  good  treatment  for  thrush  is  to  apply  a  powder 
composed  of  equal  parts  of  sulphate  of  zinc,  bluestone,  and  sul- 
phate of  iron.     The  zinc  sulphate  is  an  astringent  and  it  also 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPO  LOGY.  199 

destroys  the  diseased  tissues;  the  bluestone  has  much  the  same 
caustic  effect  and  it  is  also  a  tonic.  This  powder  is  dusted  on 
the  frog,  which  is  then  packed  with  oakum,  held  in  place  with  a 
bandage,  a  leather  boot,  or  a  leather  sole  put  on  under  the  shoe. 

For  sore  backs,  use  the  familiar  " white  lotion" — four 
tablespoons  each  of  sulphate  of  zinc  and  carbolic  acid  in  one 
quart  of  water.  The  carbolic  acid  is  of  more  value  if  the  skin 
is  chafed  than  when  it  is  unbroken.  Its  virtue  lies  principally 
in  its  germ-destroying  power.  This  lotion  is  rubbed  by  hand 
on  the  saddle-gall,  if  the  skin  is  not  broken,  and  applied  to  an 
open  sore  with  a  sponge. 

If  the  sore  back  degenerates  into  a  sitfast,  the  indurated, 
scabby  portion  should  be  cut  out  by  a  veterinarian,  and  the 
wound  of  operation  then  treated  like  an  ordinary  wound. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  sore  backs  and  sitfasts  are  not 
chafed;  no  treatment  will  cure  them  as  long  as  the  conditions 
causing  them  continue  to  exist. 

Colic  is  often  caused  in  horses  that  are  exhausted  by  per- 
mitting them  to  drink  too  freely  of  cold  water.  This  is  a  spas- 
modic colic,  very  painful,  and  a  sedative  and  stimulant  is  needed. 
Two  tablespoons  of  cannabis  Indica  (Indian  hemp),  five  drops  of 
morphine,  thirty  drops  of  tincture  of  capsicum,  mixed  with  a 
pint  of  water  and  given  at  one  dose,  will  usually  give  relief;  if 
not,  repeat  the  dose  in  about  an  hour. 

The  cannabis  Indica  soothes  the  nerves  and  so  lessens  the 
spasms  of  the  muscles,  whose  actions  are  governed  by  the  nerves. 
Morphine  is  a  sedative,  and  the  capsicum  is  a  stimulant  to  restore 
the  circulation  in  the  walls  of  the  stomach. 

Colic  caused  by  indigestion — flatulent  colic — is  treated  with 
four  tablespoons  of  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia,  two  tablespoons 
of  sweet  spirits  of  nitre,  mixed  in  a  pint  of  water  and  given  in 
one  dose.     Repeat  in  an  hour,  if  necessary. 

Aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia  is  useful  to  expel  gas  from  the 
stomach  and  intestines;  it  is  also  a  safe  stimulant.     Nitre  is  also 


200  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

a  stimulant  that  acts  on  the  kidneys;  it  neutralizes  irritating 
acids.  Its  frequent  use  is  very  debilitating  and  injurious  to 
the  kidneys. 

For  obstruction  colic,  four  tablespoons  of  oil  of  turpen- 
tine in  a  pint  of  raw  linseed  oil,  given  at  one  dose,  will  usually 
expel  the  obstruction. 

It  should  not  be  very  difficult  to  distinguish  between  the 
three  kinds  of  colic  mentioned  above.  The  stablemen  will  know 
if  the  horse  has  drunk  too  much  cold  water.  The  presence  of 
fresh  dung  in  the  stall  will  argue  against  obstruction  colic,  and 
if  the  distress  is  not  caused  by  cold  water,  the  assumption  in 
this  case  would  be  that  the  horse  was  suffering  from  colic  re- 
sulting from  indigestion. 

For  coughs,  a  useful  mixture  is  made  of  two  tablespoons 
of  oil  of  tar,  two  tablespoons  of  glycerine,  and  two  tablespoons 
of  chloroform,  mixed  in  one  pint  of  raw  linseed  oil.  Two  table- 
spoons given  two  or  three  times  a  day  is  the  dose. 

For  coughs  and  colds,  nursing  will  do  more  than  drugs. 
The  patient  should  be  kept  warm — with  blankets  in  the  winter — 
dry  and  away  from  draughts.  He  should  have  hay  in  small 
quantities  and  frequently  changed,  for  the  discharge  from  his 
nose  will  soil  it  if  left  before  him  long.  He  should  have  hot 
steamed  bran-mashes  and  have  constant  access  to  water.  The 
disease  will  then  run  its  course,  in  the  usual  case,  in  a  few  days. 
Exercise  should  be  avoided.  His  nostrils  and  lips  should  be 
frequently  washed. 

Scratches,  whose  seat  is  in  the  back  of  the  pastern,  is  a 
disease  that  is  brought  about  by  the  same  conditions  that  pro- 
duce chapped  hands  in  human  beings.  The  part  affected  should 
be  carefully  washed  and  dried  and  kept  greased  with  an  ointment 
made  of  one  part  of  oxide  of  zinc  to  ten  parts  of  cosmoline,  vas- 
eline, or  lanolin.  This  dressing  should  be  changed  frequently, 
by  thoroughly  cleansing  the  part  and  re-applying  the  ointment. 
The  horse  can  be  used,  in  mild  cases,  during  the  treatment. 
Severer  cases  demand  rest  as  a  part  of  the  treatment,  because 
bending  the  pastern  keeps  the  cracks  open. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  201 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


PREVENTABLE  DISEASES. 

Preventable  diseases  are  those  that  result  from  improper 
care  or  use.  A  large  proportion  of  the  diseases  that  a  horse  is 
liable  to  comes  under  this  head. 

They  may  be  grouped  in  two  general  classes:  diseases  due  to 
bad  shoeing,  and  diseases  due  to  bad  stable  management. 

Under  the  first  head  come,  more  especially,  diseases  in  the 
feet  and  legs,  manifested  by  lameness. 

Bad  shoeing  is  the  commonest  cause  of  all  varieties  of  dis- 
eases of  this  region.  If,  in  fitting  the  shoe,  the  wall  is  not  rasped 
down  evenly  all  around,  if  the  shoe  is  too  small  for  the  foot,  and 
the  crust  is  rasped  off  to  cover  up  the  defect,  if  the  bars  are  cut 
away,  if  the  shoe  is  too  high  behind  so  that  the  frog  cannot 
strike  the  ground,  the  result  will  be  felt  in  the  horse's  action. 

The  following  diseases  are  usually  caused  by  improper, 
shoeing,  or  may  be  prevented  by  proper  shoeing:  speedy  cut, 
splints,  strained  tendons,  broken  knees,  ringbones,  jsidebones, 
treads,  brushing,  corns,  and  cracks. 

When  a  horse  is  laid  up  for  any  reason,  his  shoes  should 
be  removed  at  once.  This  permits  a  freer  growth  of  the  horn, 
it  gives  the  frog  a  chance  to  get  a  bearing,  arid  it  is  a  rest  to  the 
foot.  The  plantar  surface  of  the  foot  should  be  rasped  smooth 
and  the  edges  rounded  off  whenever  the  shoe  is  taken  off,  to 
prevent  the  wall  from  splittings 

There  is  no  better  way  to  build  up  a  horse  or  to  keep 
one  in  health  than  to  allow  him  an  occasional  run  at 
grass.  A  horse  that  is  a  bit  run  down  in  flesh  will  be  much 
benefited  by  having  his  shoes  taken  off  and  allowed  to  run  for 
a  few  days  in  a  pasture.     The  natural  exercise,  the  green  food, 


202  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

and  the  freedom  will  combine  to  produce  most  beneficial  re- 
sults. Every  horse  should  be  turned  out  in  an  enclosure  of 
some  sort  every  day,  if  only  for  an  hour  or  two,  whenever  pos- 
sible. Horses  brought  in  hot  from  work  and  turned  loose  will 
cool  out  slowly  with  no  damage  to  themselves.  They  will  take 
enough  exercise  to  keep  from  getting  chilled. 

Pasturing  is  especially  good  for  diseases  of  the  tendons, 
ligaments,  and  bones,  and  of  the  breathing  apparatus.  A  horse 
with  a  docked  tail  should  not  be  turned  out  to  grass  or  in  a 
paddock  during  fly-time;  he  must  be  given  his  exercise  in  an- 
other way.  He  will  be  so  tormented  by  the  flies  that  no  benefit 
will  result  from  his  freedom. 

The  condition  of  a  horse — that  is,  its  state  of  being  gen- 
erally— is  the  result  of  stable  management.  In  a  good  stable, 
where  clean  stalls  are  the  rule,  where  good  forage  is  fed,  where 
the  water  is  pure,  where  the  horses  are  thoroughly  groomed, 
and  which  is  kept  dry  and  fully  ventilated,  where  the  doors  are 
wide  and  high,  and  all  the  stable  fittings  are  arranged  so  that 
there  are  no  projections  to  injure  the  horses,  there  will  be  need 
of  the  veterinary  surgeon  but  rarely. 

A  horse  is  said  to  be  in  good  condition  when  he  is  in  vig- 
orous health  and  strength,  and  in  hard  condition  when,  by 
proper  care  and  exercise,  he  is  in  shape  to  make  his  supreme 
effort,  as  should  be  the  case  before  a  race. 

Exercise  is  just  as  necessary  to  the  well-being  of  a 
horse  as  to  man.  Every  horse  that  is  kept  in  a  stable  should 
be  exercised  at  least  two  hours  a  day  to  keep  him  well.  Lack  of 
exercise  will  weaken  a  horse  as  much  as  overwork.  The  amount 
of  work  expected  of  a  horse  should  depend  upon  his  condition, 
and  this  depends  as  much  upon  the  exercise  he  has  been  getting 
as  upon  his  diet  or  sanitary  surroundings.  A  horse  that  has 
been  turned  out  to  pasture  will  take  enough  exercise  to  keep 
well,  but  will  not  keep  in  working  condition.  So  a  horse  that 
has  been  convalescing  on  grass,  after  a  month  or  two,  may  seem 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  203 

to  be  in  fine  condition,  but,  if  put  to  work,  will  be  found  to  sweat 
freely  after  slight  exertion  and  to  tire  easily.  His  condition 
should  be  hardened  by  gradual  work  or  exercise. 

Neglect  of  sanitary  care  of  the  feet,  by  allowing  the  horse 
to  stand  in  manure,  or  in  urine-soaked  mud,  will  bring  on  thrush, 
scratches,  and  other  diseases  of  the  soft  tissues  of  the  feet. 

Neglect  of  grooming  is  responsible  for  loss  of  condition, 
thus  making  the  horse  liable  to  disease.  Much  of  the  excretion 
of  waste  tissues  is  done  through  the  pores.  If  this  way  of  ex- 
cretion is  closed  because  of  the  clogging  of  the  pores,  the  waste 
tissues  will  accumulate  near  the  surface,  impeding  the  flow  of 
blood  in  the  capillaries,  the  hair  will  appear  lusterless  and  dead, 
through  being  badly  nourished,  the  dead  cells  of  the  skin  will  fill 
the  coat.  The  horse  will  appear  listless  and  irritable.  His  vi- 
tality will  be  low  and  he  will  be  ready  to  receive  and  foster  the 
germs  of  disease.  If  he  is  thoroughly  groomed,  the  circulation 
will  be  stimulated  instead  of  retarded,  excretion  will  go  on  prop- 
erly, and  the  coat  will  show  its  healthy  condition  and  that  of 
the  skin  beneath  by  its  smooth  luster.  Grooming  does  not  ben- 
efit the  coat  by  smoothing  it,  but  by  cleaning  the  skin.  The 
smoothing  of  the  coat  is  the  merest  incidental. 

Bad  forage  is  responsible  for  diseases  of  respiration  and 
digestion.  Dusty  hay  is  hay  that  has  not  been  properly  cured 
and  that  breaks  up  into  minute  dust-like  particles.  These  par- 
ticles are  sharp  and  irritating  to  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
lungs,  and  render  it  liable  to  disease.  Musty  or  sour  hay,  grain, 
or  bran  produce  indigestion  and,  ultimately,  colic. 

Reference  has  been  made  to  the  order  of  watering  and 
feeding.  First  water,  then  hay,  then  grain, — no  water  for  at 
least  two  hours  after  grain.  A  horse  that  has  been  all  day  at 
work  comes  in  at  night  ravenously  hungry.  If  he  finds  his  oats 
in  the  manger,  he  will  rush  at  them,  bolting  them  without  chewing 
them.  With  their  hard  husk,  which  is  mostly  cellulose,  un- 
broken, they  pass  through  the  stomach  undigested,  to  lie  in  the 


204  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

intestines  ready  to  ferment  and  cause  intestinal  disorders.  If 
he  is  fed  his  hay  first,  he  will,  of  necessity,  eat  it  slowly.  When, 
an  hour  or  so  later,  his  grain  is  given  him,  the  edge  of  his  hunger 
is  broken,  and  he  will  be  hours  at  his  oats;  they  will  be  perfectly 
digested  and  will  do  him  a  maximum  of  good. 

Dampness  and  lack  of  ventilation  in  stables  predis- 
poses the  horses  to  diseases  of  respiration  and  to  rheum- 
atism. These  conditions,  also,  by  lowering  the  vitality  of 
horses,  make  them  fit  subjects  for  other  diseases,  especially 
those  of  germ  origin. 

Every  stable  should  be  provided  with  ample  openings  for 
the  admission  of  air  and  for  the  escape  of  foul  air.  The  fresh-air 
openings  should  be  low  down  and  so  arranged  that  no  current  of 
air  blows  directly  on  the  horses.  The  escape  of  the  foul  air 
should  be  arranged  for  at  the  highest  part  of  the  stable,  and 
should  be  so  made  that  rain  or  snow  cannot  enter  the  stable. 

Carelessness  in  the  arrangement  of  stables  is  account- 
able for  many  injuries  from  which  horses  should  be  immune. 
Low,  narrow  doors  account  for  poll-evil  and  broken  hips.  Boards 
splintered  by  kicks  or  gnawed  through  leave  rough  ends  to 
scratch  and  blemish  horses.  Swing-bars  whose  chains  are 
patched  with  baled-hay  wire,  and  prominent  hooks,  nails,  or 
latches  where  horses  might  strike  themselves,  may  inflict  wounds 
that  are  trifling  enough  in  themselves,  but  when  located  about 
the  knees  or  hocks  reduce  materially  the  value  of  a  horse,  on 
account  of  the  suspicions  aroused  by  their  scars. 

Bad  saddling  and  badly-fitting  bridles  put  horses  out 
of  business  by  causing  saddle-galls  and  sore  mouths,  that  just  a 
little  care,  would  effectively  prevent. 

Contagious  diseases  are  frequently  allowed  to  spread, 
more  through  ignorance  and  carelessness  than  for  any  other 
reason.  A  horse  with  any  discharge  from  his  nose,  however 
slight,  should  be  isolated  at  once.  He  should  not  be  turned 
loose  with  other  horses,  or  watered  where  they  are  watered,  or 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  205 

have  his  equipment  mixed  with  theirs.  His  stall  should  be  dis- 
infected, and  his  equipment  sterilized  after  his  recovery. 

Skin  diseases,  such  as  mange,  ringworm,  scratches,  grease, 
and  those  scurfy  diseases  at  the  bend  of  the  hock  and  knee, 
known  as  sallenders  and  mallenders,  and  the  presence  of  vermin 
in  a  horse's  coat,  are  the  surest  indices  of  bad  stable  management. 

As  a  general  rule,  a  horse  of  good  conformation  that  is 
properly  fed  and  watered,  thoroughly  groomed  and  stabled  in  a 
sanitary  manner,  will  keep  well.  Hard  work,  unless  pushed  to 
an  unreasonable  degree,  will  fatigue  a  horse,  will  at  times  greatly 
exhaust  him,  but,  unless  his  condition  has  been  lowered  by  some 
preventable  cause,  no  permanent  injury  will  result. 

The  horse  is  made  for  fast  or  hard  work.  He  is  admirably 
fashioned  for  it,  but  the  natural  laws  of  his  existence  must  be 
obeyed  or  he  will  break  down  before  his  time,  not  from  over- 
work, but  from  neglect. 


2()6  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


IRREGULARITIES  OF  ACTION. 

Irregularities  of  action  result  from  disease  or  defects  of 
conformation.  A  well-put-up  horse  that  is  sound  follows  the 
usual  law  of  movement. 

The  natural  gaits — modes  of  progression — of  the  horse  are 
the  walk,  trot,  and  gallop.  Some  horses  have  a  fourth  gait, 
the  amble— pacing — but  it  is  usually  an  acquired  gait.  These 
gaits  a  horse  assumes,  when  free  to  follow  his  own  inclination, 
without  any  training  or  preparation. 

The  walk  is  a  square  gait,  where  each  foot  is  planted  in 
succession.     The  body  is  supported  all  the  time. 

The  trot  is  a  diagonal  gait;  the  feet  are  planted  in  pairs: 
right  fore  and  left  hind,  left  fore  and  right  hind.  In  changing 
support  from  one  diagonal  to  another  there  is  a  slight  period  of 
suspension,  when  the  body  is  wholly  unsupported.  Aside  from 
this  brief  instant,  the  body  is  supported  alternately  by  one  di- 
agonal pair  or  the  other,  and  never  by  more  than  two  feet. 

In  the  gallop  the  feet  are  planted  in  succession.  One  fore 
foot  is  constantly  leading— that  is,  planted  in  front  of  the  other, 
and  the  leading  fore  foot  bears  the  weight  of  the  body  for  a 
longer  time  than  any  other.  The  body  is  advanced  by  a  series 
of  leaps  and  is  much  of  the  time  in  suspension. 

In  all  of  these  gaits  the  feet  should  move  in  parallel 
planes,  should  be  planted  squarely,  and  should  not  strike 
each  other. 

In  the  walk  there  should  be  no  halt  in  the  stride.  The 
beats  caused  by  the  planting  of  the  feet  should  be  regular  and 
followed  by  the  same  intervals. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


207 


In  the  trot  each  diagonal  pair  of  legs  should  sustain  the 
weight  of  the  body  for  the  same  length  of  time. 

In  the  gallop  the  horse  should  lead  with  equal  freedom  faith 
each  fore  foot;  his  feet  should  be  well  bunched  during  the  leap, 
and  well  extended  in  receiving  the  weight  of  the  body  and  in 
throwing  it  forward.  The  canter  differs  from  the  gallop  very 
little;  it  is  the  slow  gallop.     The  leap  is  shorter,  the  leading  foot 


Figure  102. — ''Iowa." 

Pure-bred  trotting-horse  in  action. 
Courtesy  of  J.  Campbell  Thompson,  Esq 

is  not  advanced  so  far.  The  body  is  in  suspension  for  a  shorter 
time.  The  merging  of  the  canter  into  the  gallop  is  impercep- 
tible. When  a  horse  changes  from  the  walk  to  the  trot  and  from 
the  trot  to  the  canter,  the  rider  is  conscious  of  the  instant  the 
change  is  made,  but  as  the  gait  increases  to  the  gallop  and  the 
racing  gallop,  or  run,  he  is  conscious  merely  of  an  increased 
speed,  not  of  a  change  in  the  arrangement  of  footfalls. 


208  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPO  LOGY. 

There  are  two  artificial  modifications  of  the  pace:  the  rack, 
where  the  hind  foot  foots  it  ahead  of  its  leading  fore  foot;  and 
the  single  foot,  where  each  foot  foots  it  independently  of  the 
others.     The  single  foot  is  a  very  easy  gait  indeed  for  the  rider. 

The  trot  has  also  two  artificial  modifications:  the  fox  trot, 
when  the  fore  foot  foots  it  ahead  of  its  diagonal  hind  foot;  and 
the  running  walk,  where  the  hind  foot  foots  it  ahead  of  its 
diagonal  fore  foot. 

The  Kentucky  saddle-horse  has  all  of  these  gaits  and  the 
walk,  trot,  amble,  and  gallop  as  well.  The  Kentucky  breeder 
resents  having  the  gaits  above  described  styled  artificial,  because 
he  has  bred  his  strain  of  horses  to  possess  them  naturally.  They 
are  so  termed  because  a  horse  must  either  be  bred  or  trained 
to  possess  them.* 

Lameness  may  be  defined  as  an  alteration  of  action 
adopted  by  an  animal  in  an  effort  to  avoid  pain.  Most 
sound  horses  comply  with  the  rules  for  the  natural  gaits  given 
above.  Their  heads  are  carried  uniformly,  without  nodding. 
If  a  horse  is  S38n  to  dwell  longer  on  one  leg  or  pair  of  legs 
than  another,  if  he  no  is  his  head  at  each  step,  if  he  shortens 
his  gallop,  or  is  stiff*  in  his  action,  it  is  because  there  is  pain 
in  one  of  his  legs  and  he  is  trying  to  keep  his  weight  off  it  or 
to'keep  from  straightening  it.     He  is  lame. 

The  trot  is  the  best  gait  in  which  to  locate  lameness.  The 
walk  is  too  slow;  three  legs  are  always  on  the  ground  in  that 
gait,  and,  unless  very  lame  indeed,  it  will  be  difficult  to  locate 
it  at  a  walk.  The  gallop  is  too  complex  and  too  rapid  a  gait 
for  this  purpose.  The  trot,  on  the  contrary,  is  simple  and  easily 
analyzed.  It  is  not  too  rapid  for  careful  observation.  One  hind 
foot  and  the  diagonally  opposite  fore  foot  bear  the  whole  weight 
of  the  body  at  any  instant. 

*See  Captain  Haves,  "Points  of  the  Horse,"  and  Gouboux  and 
Barriere,  "Exterior  of  the  Horse,"  for  complete  discussions  of  the 
subject  of  gaits.' 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  209 

In  trying  a  horse  for  lameness,  he  is  trotted  on  hard, 
smooth  ground.  If,  in  trotting,  the  weight  is  held  on  one  diag- 
onal pair  longer  than  on  the  other,  it  is  because  bearing  the 
weight  on  the  latter  pair  is  painful,  and  the  horse  transfers  it  as 
quickly  as  possible  to  the  sound  pair.  The  lameness  is  thus 
located  in  one  of  the  two  legs. 

The  front  legs,  in  addition  to  bearing  their  share  of  the 
weight  of  the  body,  must  support,  unaided,  the  weight  of  the 
head.  When  a  horse  raises  his  head,  he  shortens  the  lever-arm, 
the  neck,  and  thus  throws  the  center  of  gravity  of  his  body 
further  back.  This  relieves  the  forelegs  of  part  of  their  load 
and  puts  it  on  the  hind  legs.  By  lowering  the  head  the  lever- 
arm  is  lengthened,  the  center  of  gravity  comes  forward,  and  the 
front  legs  relieve  the  hind  ones  of  part  of  their  burden.  So, 
having  located  the  lameness  in  one  pair  of  legs,  if,  when  that 
pair  is  supporting  the  body,  the  head  is  down,  the  lameness  is 
behind;  if  the  head  is  up,  the  lameness  is  in  front. 

If  he  is  lame  in  both  hind  or  both  front  legs,  he  will  travel 
in  a  stilty,  stiff  manner,  and  will,  when  lame  in  front,  keep  his 
head  higher,  and  when  lame  behind,  lower,  than  is  his  natural 
poise  when  at  rest. 

A  horse  usually  turns  on  his  front  feet.  If  he  is  quickly 
turned  and  is  noticed  to  dwell  more  on  one  foot  than  on  another, 
it  is  an  indication  of  unsoundness  in  the  favored  foot.  This  test 
will  sometimes  assist  in  locating  obscure  cases  of  lameness 
in  front. 

If,  after  noticing  these  irregularities  of  action  on  hard 
ground,  the  horse  is  trotted  on  soft  ground,  and  he  travels  true, 
the  suspicion  that  he  is  unsound,  and  lame  in  consequence,  is 
confirmed.  If,  on  the  contrary,  he  has  the  same  peculiarity  of 
gait,  the  irregularity  is  probably  due  to  his  conformation  or  to 
some  habit. 

Unsoundness  in  front  may  sometimes  not  be  detected  in 
the  horse's  action,  when  his  attitude  while  at  rest  will  give  a 
—15— 


210 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


sure  indication  of  it.  A  horse  that  is  sound  always  stands  with 
his  front  feet  equally  advanced.  By  a  provision  of  Nature,  the 
weight-bearing  muscles  of  his  front  legs  are  so  arranged  that 
when  he  stands  square  in  front  they  are  at  rest.  This  is  not  so 
behind.  There  he  is  constantly  shifting  his  burden;  one  leg 
supports  it  while  the  other  rests. 


Figure  103. — Pointing  a  Toe. 

If  a  horse  is  observed  while  standing  to  advance  one  front 
foot,  or  draw  it  back,  resting  it  on  toe  or  heel,  pointing  it,  as  it 
is  called,  he  is  unsound.  If  he  rests  the  foot  on  the  toe,  it  is  to 
relieve  pain  at  the  heel,  to  straighten  out  the  flexing  ligaments, 
and  the  inference  is  that  he  has  navicular  disease  (Figure  103). 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  211 

If  he  rests  the  foot  on  the  heel,  it  is  to  relieve  pressure  at  the  toe, 
or  the  laminae,  and  the  inference  is  that  he  is  foundered,  or, 
more  rarely,  that  the  extensor  tendons  are  pressing  on  a  bony 
tumor,  and  he  has  ringbone. 

Frequently  a  horse  stands  level  in  the  stall  and  goes  lame 
in  front  on  hard  ground.  This  is  never  the  case  in  diseases  of 
the  soft  tissues,  but  is  caused  by  incipient  bone  disease. 

If  a  horse  is  lame  behind  and  the  location  of  the  dis- 
ease is  not  apparent,  the  services  of  a  skilled  veterinarian 
should  be  called  in.  It  is  difficult  enough  to  properly 
diagnose  lameness  in  front;  he  is  skilled  indeed  who  can 
do  so  behind. 

The  general  rule,  that  obscure  lameness  behind  is  in 
the  hock,  and  in  front  in  the  foot,  or  in  the  ligaments  and 
tendons,  is  a  safe  one  for  the  amateur  to  follow. 

Many  horses,  through  lack  of  symmetry,  have  peculiar 
faults  of  action  not  properly  called  lameness,  though  resembling 
it.  They  can  be  usually  corrected  by  proper  shoeing  or  by  the 
use  of  boots  or  straps. 


212  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


CHAPTER  XX. 


JUDGING  HORSES  AND  THE  EXAMINATION 
FOR  SOUNDNESS. 

In  the  pages  that  precede  an  effort  has  been  made  to  indi- 
cate the  general  conformation  of  well-built  horses,  and  those 
diseases  and  defects  to  which  they  are  most  liable.  The  appli- 
cation of  the  theory  of  what  suitable  conformation  and  sound- 
ness are  will  come  when  the  student  is  called  on  to  purchase 
a  horse  for  himself. 

The  general  public  is  suspicious  of  horse-dealers,  more  be- 
cause of  its  ignorance  of  the  physical  and  civil  laws  that  relate 
to  the  soundness  of  horses  than  for  any  other  reason.  For  that 
reason  a  brief  investigation  into  the  subject  will  spare  the 
purchaser  much  annoyance  and  mortification. 

The  law  of  warranty  has  been  briefly  stated  in  the  opening 
chapter,  page  19.  Reference  to  that  will  convince  the  reader 
that  the  examination  of  the  horse  he  is  going  to  buy  and  his  trial 
had  best  be  very  thorough  and  complete,  as  it  will  prove  a  very 
difficult  matter  to  establish  the  existence  of  any  unsoundness 
or  defect  prior  to  the  date  of  purchase,  in  a  legal  manner,  to  the 
satisfaction  of  a  court. 

A  purchaser  must  not  expect  to  find  many  perfect  horses; 
there  are  few  such,  and,  excepting  young  horses,  the  very  fact 
of  their  being  without  blemishes  argues  that  they  possess  some 
undesirable  quality  that  has  limited  their  use,  and  that  will 
probably  always  limit  it.  |  He  can,  however,  learn  to  recognize 
those^glaring  defects  that  make  horses  especially  undesirable  to 
own,  and  to  discriminate  between  them  and  lesser  defects Jbhat 
can  bejDvercome,  or  that  will  not  interfere  with  the  use  to  which 
the  horse  is  to  be  put. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPO  LOGY. 


213 


A  Study  in  Conformation. 
Courtesy  of  Otto  Eerelman. 

It  is  a  surprising  fact  that  most  purchasers  want  to  buy  a 
fat  horse.  This  is  a  failing  that,  to  be  successful,  dealers  must 
meet  by  fattening  their  horses  into  what  is  called  selling  condi- 
tion. Horses  in  this  fat,  smooth  condition  cannot  be  put  to 
hardjwork  at  once;  they  are  more  subject  to  inflammatory  dis- 
eases than  when  properly  hardened  to  their  work,  and,  more 
than  all,  the  fat  cov:  rs  up  defects  of  conformation  that  would 
be  apparent  in  working  condition. 

It  is  always  best  to  see  the  horse  you  are  thinking  of  buying 
in  his  own  stall,  when  he  has  not  been  prepared  for  your  visit. 
You  can  then  inspect  him  for  such  stable  vices  as  cribbing, 
weaving,  or  kicking. 

Cribbing  is  an  injurious  habit  of  seizing  with  the  teeth  the 
manger,  halter-strap,  or  woodwork  of  the  stall,  or  any  similar 


214 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


A  Study  in  Conformation. 
Courtesy  of  Otto  Eerelman. 

thing  within  his  reach,  and,  at  the  same  time,  drawing  in  his 
breath  with  a  peculiar  noise,  known  as  wind-sucking.  It  is 
usually  a  sign  of  digestive  derangement.  A  crib-biter  can  al- 
ways be  detected  by  an  examination  of  his  incisors.  The  an- 
terior portion  of  the  tables  is  worn  down  much  more  than  the 
posterior.  This  is  one  of  the  few  vices  horses  have  that  is  taught 
others  by  example. 

Weaving  is  a  stable  vice  manifested  by  swinging  from  side 
to  side  in  the  stall.  It  is  rarely  more  serious  than  an  indica- 
tion of  a  nervous,  restless  nature.  It  is  a  frequent  accom- 
paniment of  crib-biting. 

Kicking  is  such  a  serious  vice,  and  so  difficult  to  eradicate, 
that  no  horse  should  be  knowingly  purchased  that  possesses  it. 
It  is  often  shown  by  the  appearance  of  the  woodwork  of  the 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  215 

stalls  near  the  heel-posts.     A  horse  given  to  kicking  in  the  stable 
usually  shows  scarred  heels  and  capped  hocks. 

It  should  also  be  noticed  whether  he  points  a  toe  in  the 
stall.  The  meaning  of  this  symptom  has  been  sufficiently 
explained. 

The  inspection  in  the  stall  finished,  have  the  horse  brought 
into  the  light;  if  his  general  appearance  is  satisfactory,  and 
he  seems  suitable  for  the  purpose  to  which  it  is  proposed  to 
put  him,  his  age  should  be  verified,  and  his  sight  tested  in  a 
general  way. 

Assuring  yourself  in  these  three  regards,  -apparent  general 
suitability,  age,  and  vision,  the  more  critical  examination  is 
begun.  A  note-book  and  a  pencil  should  be  at  hand  to  take 
down  such  departures  from  normal  conditions  as  you  may  notice. 

First  notice  color,  sex,  and  peculiar  markings,  so  as  to  be 
able  to  identify  the  horse  later  on.  Then  proceed  to  a  more 
critical  examination  of  the  eyes. 

The  best  light  is  that  coming  directly  from  above,  from  a 
skylight  or  a  high  window  in  an  otherwise  darkened  room.  If 
such  a  place  is  not  available,  bring  him  to  the  stable  door,  closing 
all  apertures  behind  him.  After  placing  him  directly  facing  the 
source  of  light,  stand  behind  his  shoulder  and  look  through  each 
eye,  from  side  to  side,  with  great  care,  noting  everything,  no 
matter  how  slight,  that  interferes  with  their  perfect  transpar- 
ency. A  horse  that  has  any  disease,  or  any  mark  of  disease,  in 
the  eye,  no  matter  how  slight,  is  not  a  sound  horse.  After  the 
examination  of  the  anterior  portion  of  each  eye,  from  behind, 
stand  in  front  of  him  and  compare  closely  both  eyes,  to  see  if 
there  is  perfect  clearness  in  each,  that, the  pupils  are  of  equal 
size,  and  that  they  dilate  and  contract  equally.  If  any  sus- 
picions are  aroused,  no  matter  how  slight,  of  the  presence  of 
cataract,  the  candle-test  should  be  applied. 

Go  next  to  the  near  front  leg.  Next  to  the  eyes  the  front 
legs  are  of  the  greatest   importance  for  saddle-horses.     Pass 


216 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


the  hand  along  the  withers  and  the  shoulder  for  saddle-galls, 
sitfasts,  and  collar-galls,  and  over  the  elbow  for  shoe  boils. 

The  knees  should  be  most  carefully  inspected  for  broken 
knees.  While  no  serious  injury~may  have  resulted  to  the  horse's 
knees  by  his  falling  on  them,  while  the  joint  may  be  perfectly 
unimpaired,  still  the  fact  that  the^horse  has  fallen  on  his  knees 


Jim 

1 

4MEHjl^^H 

wl 

San     mm 

'  mm  "   m    ' 

" '"  ^Jmk 

Figure  104. — A  Study  in  Conformation 


at  some  time  in  his  history  should  cause  the  careful  purchaser  to 
end  his  examination  with  the  discovery  of  scars  of  broken  knees. 
The  nerves  of  the  feet  are  possessed  of  marvelous  sensitive- 
ness, considering  their  horny  covering,  and  an  animal  whose 
shoulder  is  sloping  enough  to  plant  his  foot  well  out  in  front  of 
him  will  not  fall,  unless  he  is  tired  out  from  extraordinary  ex- 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  217 

ertions,  or  unless  he  is  seriously  unsound  in  one  or  both  of  his 
front  legs. .  Whatever  the  cause  of  the  broken  knees,  reject 
the  horse.  v 

If  the  knees  are  sound,  look  at  the  head  of  the  cannon-bone, 
on  the  inside,  for  scars  of  speedy  cut.  This,  as  we  have  seen,  is 
a  defect  of  action  caused  by  fcad  conformation.  It  is  a  fault 
difficult  to  eradicate.  The  blow  is  so  painful  as  to  frequently 
bring  the  horse  to  his  knees.  It  is  liable  to  recur  at  any  time, 
and,  as  the  blow  is  given  only  when  the  horse  is  going  at  top 
speed,  the  accident  resulting  from  his  fall  is  sure  to  be  a  serious 
one.  For  this  reason,  unless  the  horse  is  wanted  for  slow  work 
only,  reject  him  when  he  shows  a  scar  of  speedy  cut. 

Splints  are  found  between  the  knee  and  fetlock,  on  or  near 
the  splint-bones.  They  are  recognized  as  small  bony  knots, 
easily  felt.  If  they  lie  forward  on  the  cannon-bone  and  not 
near  the  knee,  they  usually  are  harmless.  If  they  are  on  the 
back  of  the  cannon-bone,  they  may  interfere  with  the  action  of 
the  tendons.  To  test  this,  apply  pressure  to  the  tendons.  If 
the  horse  shows  pain  by  flinching,  and  the  tendons  show  inflam- 
mation, reject  him.  A  pegged  splint  is  almost  sure  to  cause 
permanent  lameness. 

Passing  the  hand  down  the  back  tendons,  compress  them 
steadily.  Any  tenderness  or  signs  of  inflammation  is  cause 
of  rejection. 

Carefully  inspect  the  fetlock,  pastern,  and  ankle  for  wind- 
galls,  ringbones,  sidebones,  and  grease,  and  the  coronet  for 
treads  and  quittor. 

Inspect  the  pastern  and  ankle  for  scars  of  firing  or  neu- 
rotomy. Be  very  suspicious-  of  any  scars  m  this  region.  A 
horse  that  has  been  nerved  has  but  a  brief  period  of  usefulness 
ahead  of  him. 

Pick  up  the  foot  and  examine  the  sole  for  contracted  heels, 
thrush,  canker,  and  corns.     See  that  the  sole  is  concave,  and 


218 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


A  Study  in  Conformation. 
Courtesy  of  Otto  Eerelman. 

that  there  is  no  irregularity  in  the  shoe.  Feel  the  coronet,  walls, 
and  heels  for  fever,  or  any  other  indications  of  laminitis. 

Tap  the  front  of  the  foot  with  a  knife  or  a  coin  for  seedy  toe, 
and  look  carefully  for  false  quarter.  Inspect  closely  the  surface 
of  the  walls  for  signs  of  rasping  out  founder  rings.  If  this  has 
been  done,  unless  the  foot  has  been  most  carefully  stained,  the 
hoof  will  show  varying  colorings.  Be  especially  careful  in  your 
scrutiny  of  a  hoof  that  has  been  stained  or  polished. 

Inspect  his  nostrils  for  discharges  of  any  character.  A  horse 
that  has  a  nasal  discharge  is  unsound,  and  the  inspection  should 
be  put  off  for  a  few  days  to  determine  whether  the  discharge  is 
or  is  not  chronic.  The  nasal  membranes  should  be  moist,  pale 
in  color  when  the  horse  is  quiet,  and  bright  red  after  sharp  ex- 
ercise.    They  should  be  free  from  scars. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


219 


A  Study  in  Conformation. 
Courtesy  of  Otto  Eerelman. 

The  ears  should  be  free  from  warts,  and  easily  handled.  Do 
not  expect  a  horse  to  permit  his  ears  to  be  pulled  about  willingly, 
but  he  should  allow  them  to  be  handled  enough  to  be  bridled 
easily  and  to  have  them  trimmed  and  cleaned. 

The  poll  should  be  inspected  for  fistula. 

A  good  horse  that  has  been  well  broken  and  kindly  handled 
will  not  dodge  or  show  the  whites  of  his  eyes  when  handled  about 
the  head.  Such  actions  are  the  surest  witnesses  to  abuse  during 
his  bringing  up. 

Pass  then  to  the  off  side,  examining  the  jugular  vein  on  each 
side  for  signs  of  blood-letting  (to  relieve  congestion  of  the  brain — 
blind  staggers).  Examine  the  withers  and  back  from  that  side. 
Go  over  the  right  front  leg  with  the  same  care  and  in  the  same 
manner  that  you  used  in  the  examination  of  the  left  one. 


220 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOOY. 


Examine  the  back,  especially  the  lumbar  region,  for  evi- 
dences of  kidney  trouble.  Examine  the  hip,  croup,  and  stifle. 
Then  pass  to  the  hock. 

Raise  the  horse's  tail,  pull  it  to  the  off  side  with  the  left  hand, 
stoop  down  slightly,  and  look  at  the  inner  side  of  the  off  hock 


Figure  105. — A  Study  in  Conformatk 


from  in  front  of  the  leg.  If  there  is  a  protuberance  on  the  lower 
edge  of  the  hock-joint,  inspect  it  with  care  for  marks  of  blistering 
or  firing.  Feel  it;  if  it  is  hard,  it  is  probably  a  spavin,  and  the 
horse  should  not  be  bought.  Look  for  bog-spavin,  and  thor- 
oughpin,  capped  hocks,  and  curb. 

Blistering  is  the  process  of  producing  artificial  inflammation, 
by  the  application  of  a  powerful  liniment,  to  relieve  congestion 
or  to  hasten  bone-deposit. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


221 


A  Study  in  Conformation. 
Courtesy  of  Otto  Eerelman. 

Firing  produces  the  same  result,  in  a  more  radical  way,  by 
actually  burning  the  part  with  a  hot  iron. 

Blistering,  if  severe,  leaves  an  irregular  scar,  partly  de- 
nuded of  hair.  Rows  of  dots  or  thin  parallel  lines  are  the  marks 
of  firing. 

If  there  is  any  suspicion  of  spavin,  a  simple  test  is  to  pick 
up  the  leg,  bend  it  well,  and  hold  it  up  for  a  minute  or  two;  then 
drop  it,  and  start  the  horse  off  at  a  trot.  If  sound,  he  will 
not  limp. 

The  cannon-bone  should  be  examined  for  splints,  rare  as 
they  are  behind,  and  the  tendons  examined  for  evidence  of  in- 
flamed or  sprained  tendons.  The  same  critical  examination 
should  b3  made  of  the  feet  as  was  made  in  front,  and  of  the  left 
hindjeg  as  was  made  of  the  right. 


222 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 


A  Study  in  Conformation. 
Courtesy  of  Otto  Eerelman. 


Examine  the  tail;  see  that  the  quarters  are  well  filled  up 
behind,  and  that  all  is  in  order  under  the  dock. 

Examine  the  sheath;  look  under  the  belly  to  see  that  there 
are  no  warts  or  protuberances  there,  and  that  the  belly  is  free 
from  scars.     Look  on  all  the  legs  for  wire  cuts. 

The  horse's  action  should  next  be  tested.  Have  him  led  at 
a  slow  gait  away  from  you,  noticing  the  action  of  the  hocks, 
pasterns,  and  feet.  Look  closely  for  any  dwelling  on  either 
hind  leg,  indicating  lameness  in  the  other.  Watch  his  head,  to 
see  if  he  nods  excessively. 

When  he  turns,  note  carefully  the  ease  of  action  in  the  front 
legs,  and,  as  he  approaches,  note  the  way  he  handles  his  front 
feet,  and  the  carriage  of  his  head.  He  should  be  trotted  past 
the  inspector  two  or  three  hundred  feet,  again  turned  and  brought 
to  a  standstill  near  him. 


ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY.  223 

Avoid  horses  with  hackney  knee-action.  They  are  almost 
sure  to  go  wrong  in  front  while  young,  and,  while  stylish,  are 
expensive  and  not  apt  to  be  long  serviceable. 

Notice  his  breathing,  the  expansion  of  his  nostrils,  the  heave 
of  his  sides. 

Have  him  mounted  next,  and  galloped  sharply  for  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  or  so,  and  again  inspect  his  breathing.  If  he  labors 
noiselessly  for  breath  (thick  wind),  if  the  period  of  exhalation  is 
longer  than  the  period  of  inhalation  (heaves),  if  he  makes  a 
noise  at  both  inhalation  and  exhalation  (whistling),  or  during 
inhalation  only  (roaring),  reject  him. 

Feel  his  pulse;  the  most  convenient  place  is  at  the  jaw.  A 
large  artery  runs  around  the  lower  border  of  the  jaw-bone  and 
up  on  the  outside  immediately  in  front  of  the  heavy  muscles  of 
the  cheek.  It  can  be  easiest  felt  where  it  curves  r round  the 
jaw-bone,  by  pressing  it  gently  against  the  bone.  To  tike  the 
pulse,  press  the  balls  of  the  first  and  second  fingers  against  the 
artery.  The  count  should  be  from  33  to  40  beats  a  minute; 
nearer  the  first  number  before  exercise,  and  the  latter  just  after. 
The  pulse  slows  down  in  old  age.  It  should  be  strong  and  reg- 
ular. The  heart  can  be  easily  heard  by  placing  the  ear  at  the 
base  of  the  throat  or  on  the  ribs  behind  the  shoulder. 

An  inspector  who  buys  horses  under  contract  should  demand 
that  they  come  up  to  the  specifications  of  the  contract.  Con- 
tractors are  presumed  to  have  read  the  specifications  before 
they  make  their  bids.  The  latter  should  be  based  on  the  value 
of  the  horses  asked  for,  and  nothing  short  of  that  should  be 
expected.  When  horses  of  the  grade  advertised  for  are  worth 
$175,  a  contractor  who  agrees  to  furnish  them  for  $150  should 
not  be  permitted  to  put  in  inferior  stock  because  of  his  false  bid. 
Not  only  does  the  inspector  bring  himself  into  disrepute  for  ac- 
cepting inferior  animals,  but  honest  bidders  who  are  ready  to 
deliver  horses  up  to  standard,  at  a  proper  price,  are  cut  out  of 
their  right  to  do  so. 


224  ELEMENTS    OF    HIPPOLOGY. 

The  whole  theory  of  advertising  for  purchase  by  contract  is 
based  on  the  idea  that  bidders  can  learn  what  is  wanted  ex- 
actly, and  can  then  figure  at  what  price  they  can  afford  to  make 
the  deliveries.  If  this  theory  is  perverted  by  permitting  con- 
tractors who  have  made  dishonest  or  haphazard  bids  to  evade 
their  contracts  by  furnishing  as  good  horses  as  the  price  they 
offer  would  warrant,  it  would  be  better  to  abandon  it  altogether. 

Well-bred  horses  that  may  be  predicted  as  capable  of  giving 
good  service  have  about  the  following  conformation: 

Head  small,  clear-cut,  and  well  set  on  a  long,  slender  neck. 

Shoulders  sloping  well  forward,  muscular,  and  long. 

Front  leg  well  muscled  above  the  knee,  cannon  shorter  than 
leg-bone,  and  both  upright  and  straight,  ankle  sloping  forward, 
long  and  elastic;  fetlock,  ankle,  and  pastern,  smooth,  firm,  and 
small. 

Feet  small,  sound,  and  with  well-developed  frogs. 

Barrel  deep,  long,  and  well-ribbed  up,  about  equal  in  size  at 
girth  and  middle,  and  sloping  gradually  from  the  middle  towards 
the  sheath. 

Withers  reasonably  prominent  and  well  muscled. 

Back  flat,  well  muscled,  and  free  from  saddle-marks. 

Coupling  short  and  strong. 

Croup  slightly  convex,  viewed  from  side  and  rear.  There 
should  be  considerable  length  from  loin  to  tail,  and  not  much 
curvature. 

Tail  well  set  on,  and,  when  the  animal  is  in  motion,  carried 
away  from  the  body.     The  hair  should  be  fine  and  silky. 

Thighs  prominent  and  muscular  and  well  filled  up,  when 
viewed  from  behind.  Measured  from  hip  to  hock,  the  thigh 
should  be  long. 

Hocks  clean-cut,  not  puffy,  wide  from  the  side,  large  and 
well  bent.  The  point  of  the  hock  should  not  be  noticeably 
prominent.  Both  hocks,  viewed  from  behind,  should  be  parallel 
and  straight  under  the  horse's  body. 

The  cannon-bone  should  be  flat  and  broad.  Pasterns  and 
feet  as  in  front  legs. 


Webster  Family  Library  of  Veterinary  Medicine 
Cummings  School  of  Veterinary  Medicine  at 
Ms  University 
200  Westboro  Road 


Compaiy  A,  Fifth  Re^im  afaitry, 

Second  Brigade.  M.  V.  M. 


